Lipid Oxidation Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Diffusion coefficient Lipid oxidation Whole milk powder a b s t r a c t Antioxidant active packaging is a promising technology for whole milk powder (WMP) protection. In this study, the migration of a-tocopherol from a multilayer active packaging (made of high density polyethylene, ethylene vinyl alcohol and a layer of low density polyethylene containing the antioxidant) to WMP was studied. A model based on the Fick's diffusion equation was used to calculate the diffusion coefficients (D) of a-tocopherol as 2.34 Â 10 À11 , 3.06 Â 10 À11 , and 3.14 Â 10 À11 cm 2 s À1 at 20, 30 and 40°C, respectively. The D at 20°C was different from those at 30 and 40°C (P < 0.05); but it was similar at 30 and 40°C. This low influence of temperature on the migration of a-tocopherol from 20 to 40°C assures the release at real storage and commercialization conditions in regions with warm/hot climate. The antioxidant delivering system delayed the lipid oxidation of WMP and it was more effective at 30 and 40°C since the rate of oxidative reactions was higher at these temperatures than at 20°C.

- by
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Migration, Food, Film

The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of two levels of vitamin E (100 and 300 mg/kg diet) along with two levels of lipid (9 and 14%) and their interaction on growth performance of Indian white shrimp and consequently to evaluate the fatty acid composition and lipid stability of its muscle tissue during frozen storage. Growth of juvenile Indian white shrimp was not significantly affected by dietary vitamin E and lipid levels. Muscle lipid content of shrimp fed diets with 14% lipid was significantly higher than that of with 9% lipid. Obvious effects of the increase in dietary lipid level on muscle fatty acid composition were significant decrease in proportion of 16:0 and increase in proportion of 20:5n-3. The content of vitamin E concentration in shrimp muscle reflected dietary vitamin E concentration and ranged from 6.68 to 14.8 mg/kg muscle corresponding to two (100 and 300 mg/kg) levels of vitamin E in fish diet, respectively. Subsequently, results showed that by increasing the concentration of vitamin E from 100 to 300 mg/kg in diet, the rate of lipid oxidation in the muscle tissue during frozen storage was reduced and, as a result, caused higher HUFA retention in muscle of shrimp fed diet with high lipid level.

- by Bahareh Shabanpour and +1
- •
- Aquaculture, Fisheries Sciences, Growth performance, Lipid Oxidation

This study evaluated the effectiveness of grape seed extracts (GSE) on lipid oxidation of corn chips stored for 90 days in comparison to tert-butylhydroxytoluene (BHT). Proximate chemical analysis results showed that corn chips contained low moisture contents (less than 2%) and also that no significant differences were found in the dry matter values in ash, fat, protein, and fiber. Antioxidant activity

- by mohammad alhamad
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Sensory, Food Preservation, Chemical Analysis

Almond paste products have a brief shelf life due to both lipid oxidation and hardening. Since oxidation and hardening are respectively induced by headspace oxygen and moisture migration, the use of polymeric films having high barrier properties to low molecular weight compounds in combination with a low oxygen concentration in the package headspace is expected to extend almond paste shelf life. During this research, two flexible films, having a nylon or an ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer layer as a barrier to low molecular weight compounds, were tested. Products were packed alternatively under nitrogen or in presence of oxygen scavengers. A part of them was kept as controls and packed under air. Samples were stored at 37°C and regularly analysed. Results showed that the loss of moisture, and the consequent hardening of samples, is the main phenomenon affecting quality and shelf life of almond paste.

- by Antonietta Baiano
- •
- Food Engineering, Packaging, Air Sampling, SHELF LIFE

The effect of prolonged light exposure on the chemical changes in milk stored at 4°C in clear polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles was compared with milk stored in green PET bottles, containers made from PET incorporating a UV blocker, PET containers with exterior labels and high-density polyethylene (HDPE) jugs and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) pouches stored under the same conditions. Data were obtained for lipid oxidation, vitamin A degradation, protein hydrolysis, lipolysis and microbial growth. The milk stored in green PET bottles experienced less lipid oxidation and vitamin A loss than milk stored in the clear PET bottles, or the LDPE pouches and jugs. In general, the milk stored in the clear PET bottles was not as well protected from the effects of light as milk stored in green bottles or LDPE pouches. However, during the first week of storage, only vitamin A loss showed a substantial difference between the milk stored in green PET bottles, clear PET bottles or LDPE pouches. The PET bottles with UV blockers slowed vitamin A degradation but had little effect on lipid oxidation. Blocking visible light with translucent labels helped to inhibit lipid oxidation and vitamin A degradation.

- by Mansel Griffiths
- •
- SHELF LIFE, Light, Polyethylene, Dairy

Fish waste is a potential source of protein for animal nutrition. Ensilage could provide an advantageous means of upgrading these residues. Careful control of the degree of proteolysis and lipid oxidation is required to produce silages of high nutritional value. This paper studies the changes in lipids and protein during storage (15 days) of acid silages (with 0, 0.25 and 0.43%, w/w, of formaldehyde) and biological silages (with 10 and 20% molasses or dehydrated whey) prepared from blue whiting. A remarkable reduction in protein solubilisation values was achieved by adding formaldehyde. However, formaldehyde addition led to an increase in the peroxide value of the oil extracted from the silages. Ensiling by biological methods seems promising. It yielded both a considerable reduction in protein solubilisation and in basic volatile nitrogen when compared with acid ensilage. In addition, the oil from biological silages had lower peroxide values than the oil from acid silages with added formaldehyde. 0

- by Maria Enes-Dapkevicius
- •
- Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Animal Nutrition, Nitrogen

It is well recognized that oxygen radicals are involved in various pathologies, and that antioxidants could protect the body from oxygen radical-induced damage, llex paraguariensis St. Hilaire ("mate" or "yerba mate") is the most commercialized plant of South America, and it is used to prepare a tea-like beverage, the mate. Some related species of the genus llex are used as substitutes or adulterants of L paraguariensis. Some of these are L theezans C. Martis ex Reisseck; L dumosa Reisseck var dumosa; 1. argentina Lillo; L brevicuspis Reisseck; L pseudobuxus Reisseck. In the present work, the antioxidant activity of a group of llex (llex spp.) was examined, and related to their content of caffeoyl-derivatives. Liposomes were oxidized by incubation (37°C, 60 rain) with 10 mM 2,2"-azobis-(2amidinopropane) hydrochloride (AAPH), in the presence or the absence of Ilex spp. extracts. Lipid oxidation products were measured as 2-thiobarbituric acidreactive substances (TBARS). Caffeoyl-derivatives were estimated spectrophotometrically, using chlorogenic acid as standard. Results showed that all the assayed plants had antioxidant activity when prepared as mate. L paraguariensis had the highest antioxidant activity. Its content of caffeoyl derivatives was 10.71 + 0.40 g chlorogenic acid/100 g dry plant material. A positive and significant correlation was observed between the antioxidant activity and the content of caffeoyl-derivatives of the assayed extracts (r = 0.94, p = 0.0005). The present results suggest that I. paraguariensis and the most widely consumed Southamerican llex spp., have antioxidant properties that they conserve when are prepared as mate. It is possible to speculate that the regular consumption of this beverage may significantly contribute to improve human antioxidant defenses.

- by Rosana Filip
- •
- Nutrition and Dietetics, Nutrition, Polyphenols, South America

Three different samples of white chocolate were prepared: a sample with a synthetic antioxidant, another with casein peptides as natural antioxidant, and a third sample without any kind of antioxidant. Parameters associated with lipid oxidation and non-enzymatic browning were evaluated in the different samples of white chocolate during 10 months storage at 20 and 28°C. Acidity, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and peroxide values increased with the incubation time. Samples stored at 20°C often showed lower values for these parameters than those stored at 28°C, although the differences were not always significant. The values for water activity increased from 0.4 to 0.53-0.57 during the period of 10 months. The color parameter a* was increased in samples stored at 28°C from month 5, and the parameter b* was lower in samples containing antioxidants from month 2. The addition of antioxidants did not significantly influence most the parameters studied, suggesting that the main parameters governing the alterations of white chocolate during its shelf-life was the storage temperature and increase in water activity.

- by Caciano Noreña
- •
- Food Science and Technology, SHELF LIFE, Water Activity, Lipid Oxidation

Pulsed light (PL) was tested for its utility to improve the microbial quality and safety of ready-to-eat cooked meat products. Vacuum-packaged ham and bologna slices were superficially inoculated with Listeria monocytogenes and treated with 0.7, 2.1, 4.2 and 8.4 J/cm 2 . PL treatment at 8.4 J/cm 2 reduced L. monocytogenes by 1.78 cfu/cm 2 in cooked ham and by 1.11 cfu/cm 2 in bologna. The effect of PL on lipid oxidation and sensory properties was also investigated. The 2-thiobarbituric acid values were very low and chromaticity parameters were within the normal values reported for cooked meat products. PL at 8.4 J/cm 2 did not affect the sensory quality of cooked ham, while treatments above 2.1 J/cm 2 negatively influenced the sensory properties of bologna. The combination of PL and vacuum packaging provided ham with an additional shelf-life extension of 30 days compared with only vacuum packaging. The shelf-life of bologna was not extended by PL. Industrial relevance: The efficacy of pulsed light for the decontamination of surfaces offers excellent possibilities to ensure food safety and to extend shelf-life of ready-to-eat (RTE) products. The results of this study indicate that Listeria monocytogenes can be reduced by approximately 2 log cfu/cm 2 in RTE cooked ham and 1 log cfu/cm 2 in bologna using a fluence of 8.4 J/cm 2 . This dose does not affect the sensory properties of ham and triples its shelf-life when compared with conventional RTE products. On the contrary, fluences above 2.1 J/cm 2 are not suitable for the treatment of bologna since sensory quality is modified.

- by juan ordóñez
- •
- Engineering, Biological Sciences, SHELF LIFE, Listeria monocytogenes

The effect of thin metal oxide coated barrier materials on the quality of shelf stable salmon was investigated. Four different retort pouch structures were used: Cast polypropylene (CPP); polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/silicon oxide-coated nylon/CPP (SIOX); Aluminum oxide-coated PET/nylon/CPP (ALOX); PET/aluminum foil/CPP (FOIL). To determine the amount of lipid oxidation in the salmon, thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) was measured. Salmon packaged in SIOX pouches had higher TBARS value, 43.53 mili-extinction/g, than salmon packaged in FOIL pouches, 37.06 mili-extinction/g, after 8 weeks of storage. A multiple comparisons test was used to evaluate the sensory characteristics of the salmon. Salmon packaged in SIOX pouches had less acceptability, 4.11, than salmon packaged in FOIL pouches, 5.44, after week 8. Conversely, salmon packaged in ALOX pouches had similar sensory and TBARS value with salmon packaged in FOIL pouches. The barrier properties of each pouch material were also investigated. Oxygen permeability (OP, g mm/m 2 day kPa) of SIOX increased from 0.88 to 10.55 after retort processing. SIOX had an OP of 10.94 at week 8 while ALOX and FOIL had 0.51 and 0.47 of OP, respectively. Overall, shelf stable salmon packaged in ALOX had a shelf life comparable to salmon packaged in a traditional FOIL pouch material, while salmon packaged in SIOX had a significantly lower shelf life then either ALOX or FOIL.

- by Scott Whiteside
- •
- Stability, Animal Production, Food Preservation, SHELF LIFE
- by Sam Taiwo
- •
- Free Radicals, Macrophages, Glutamate, Vascular endothelium

Meat quality comparisons were carried out on hams produced from pork legs showing evidence of PSE and normal pork legs. Quality measurements included drip loss, sliceability, cooking loss, TBARS analysis and colour evaluation (Hunter L, a, b). A total of 40 pork legs were selected from a commercial slaughtering plant, 20 from carcasses showing PSE and 20 from normal carcasses based on L, a, b, and pH values. Carcass pH taken between the third/fourth rib was measured 45 min, 90 min, and 24 h after slaughter. Using a Minolta colorimeter (Hunter L, a, b,), colour of the Longissimus dorsi muscle was measured 24 h after slaughter. PSE had an adverse effect on cooked hams in comparison to normal cooked hams with respect to driploss (P< 0.01), cooking loss (P <0.01), sliceability (P< 0.01), colour (P<0.05) and lipid oxidation (P< 0.05). Cooked hams manufactured from severe PSE pork in this study had an estimated financial loss of 50% (IRL£4.90) in comparison to those manufactured from normal pork (IRL£9.80).

- by Joe Kerry
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Meat Science, Animal Production, Meat quality

Commercial samples of beef and turkey meat were prepared by commonly used cooking methods with standard cooking times: (1) broiled at 200°C for 10 min, (2) broiled at a medium temperature (140°C) for 10 min, (3) cooked by microwave (MW) for 3 min and then grilled (MW/grill) for 7 min, (4) cooked in a domestic microwave oven for 10 min, and (5) boiled in water for 10 min. The raw and cooked meats were then analysed to determine the carnosine, anserine, homocarnosine, pentosidine, and thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance (TBARS) contents. It was observed that boiling beef caused a loss of approximately 50% of the carnosine, probably because of the high water solubility of carnosine and its homologues; cooking by microwave caused a medium loss of the anti-oxidants of approximately 20%; cooking by MW/grill led to a reduction in carnosine of approximately 10%. As far as the anserine and homocarnosine contents were concerned, a greater loss was observed for the boiling method (approximately 70%) while, for the other cooking methods, the value ranged from 30% to 70%. The data oscillate more for the turkey meat: the minimum carnosine decrease was observed in the cases of MW/grill and broiling at high temperature (25%). Analogously, the anserine and homocarnosine contents decreased slightly in the case of MW/grill and broiling at a high temperature (2-7%) and by 10-30% in the other cases. No analysed meat sample showed any traces of pentosidine above the instrumental determination limits. The cooked beef showed an increased TBARS value compared to the raw meat, and the highest values were found when the beef was broiled at a high temperature, cooked by microwave or boiled in water. The TBARS value of the turkey meat decreased for all the cooking methods in comparison to the TBARS value of the fresh meat.

- by Federica Bello and +1
- •
- Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Oscillations, High Temperature

Electron spin resonance spectroscopy (spin trapping technique) has been used to identify the most important single factor for initiation of lipid oxidation in mayonnaise enriched with fish oil. Low pH increases the formation of radicals during incubation under mildly accelerated conditions at 37 7C as quantified using 12-doxylstearic acid. Sugar, NaCl and potassium sorbate have no effect on radical formation while EDTA (down to 50 mg/g) has an antioxidative effect. Iron bound to phosvitin in egg yolk, inactive at pHF6, is considered to be exposed to the solvent (the aqueous phase) at low pH and capable of initiating peroxide cleavage reactions when not protected by EDTA in a mixed complex.

- by Marianne Thomsen
- •
- Electron Spin Resonance, Industrial Biotechnology, Fish Oil, Iron

The critical function of the immune system is to discriminate self from non-self. Tolerance against self-antigens is a highly regulated process and, in order to maintain it, the immune system must be able to distinguish selfreactive lymphocytes as they develop. The presence of autoantibodies is the consequence of breakdown of tolerance and, although they are an important serological feature of autoimmune diseases, their presence is not exclusive of these conditions. Antibodies against self-antigens are also found in cancer, during massive tissue damage and even in healthy subjects. Natural autoantibodies provide immediate protection against infection and also prevent inflammation by facilitating the clearance of oxidized lipids, oxidized proteins, and apoptotic cells; their role in development of autoimmunity is still unclear. Detection of serum autoantibodies in clinical practice has become more available to clinicians worldwide while providing a powerful diagnostic tool. This review discusses the clinical significance of autoantibodies, their pathogenic mechanisms in autoimmune diseases and, finally, illustrates the technology available for appropriate autoantibody detection.

- by Pietro Invernizzi
- •
- Immunology, Inflammation, Autoimmunity, Antibodies

A screening experiment consisting of 18 batches of meat loaves were made using a fractional factorial design with six factors including two production replicates i.e. testing of several factors in relatively few trials. The rancidity was detected by TBARS, volatile compounds by GC-MS and sensory analysis by a sensory panel. The results were presented graphically as formal statistical testing is limited. To do this the multivariate results from GC-MS and sensory analyses were made univariate by statistical tools. Pre-salting meat and storing it in frozen air, will result in rancid meat, and regardless pre-salting or not ascorbic acid will act as a pro-oxidant when added into already rancid meat and stored frozen. The three methods used to detect rancidity in meat loaves resulted sometimes in discrepancy in the results. Further research has to be done to verify if these findings were due to development of different oxidation products due to the combinations of factors or if these were outliers.

- by Frøydis Bjerke
- •
- Industrial Biotechnology, Lipid Oxidation, Sensory Analysis, Ascorbic Acid

A study was carried out to evaluate the antioxidant potential of pomegranate juice (PJ), rind powder extract (RP) and butylated hydroxyl toluene (BHT) in cooked chicken patties during refrigerated storage. Freshly minced chicken meats were assigned to one of the following four treatments: control (meat treated with no antioxidants); 10 mg equivalent PJ phenolics per 100 g meat; 10 mg equivalent RP phenolics per 100 g meat; 10 mg BHT per 100 g meat. The patties formed from the minced meats were grilled for 20 min and stored under aerobically at 4°C for 15 days. Total phenolic content (as tannic acid equivalent) significantly (P < 0.05) increased from 152 in control to 195 and 224 lg/g in PJ and RP patties. Addition of PJ or RP did not affect any of the sensory attributes. The TBARS values were significantly (P < 0.05) reduced from 1.272 in control patties to 0.896, 0.763 and 0.203 mg malonaldehyde per kg samples in BHT, PJ and RP patties, respectively. The RP treatment substantially inhibited (P < 0.01) lipid oxidation in cooked chicken patties to a much greater extent than BHT treatment. The PJ or RP at a level of 10 mg equivalent phenolics/100 g meat would be sufficient to protect chicken patties against oxidative rancidity for periods longer than the most commonly used synthetic antioxidant like BHT.

- by S Vaithiyanathan
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Meat Science, Animal Production, Chicken Meat

A series of experiments investigated the nature of metallic taste reports and whether they can be attributed to the development of a retronasal smell. Two studies showed that the metallic sensation reports following oral stimulation with solutions of FeSO 4 were reduced to baseline when the nose was occluded. No such reduction was seen for CuSO 4 or ZnSO 4 , which were more bitter and astringent, respectively, and less metallic. A discrimination test based on weak but equi-intense levels of FeSO 4 and CuSO 4 showed that FeSO 4 could be discriminated from water with the nose open but not when occluded, but that discrimination of CuSO 4 from water was not impaired by nasal occlusion. A discrimination test demonstrated that the headspace over solutions of FeSO 4 was not different from water, although some subjects could discriminate FeSO 4 solutions from water in the mouth when the nose was occluded, perhaps by tactile or astringent cues. These results confirm that metallic taste reports following oral stimulation with FeSO 4 are likely due to development of a retronasal smell, possibly following a lipid oxidation reaction in the mouth. However, metallic taste reports may arise from different mechanisms with copper and zinc salts. Metallic Taste and Retronasal Smell 33 Murphy, C. and Cain, W.S. (1980) Taste and olfaction: independence vs. interaction. Physiol. Behav., 24, 601-605. Rousseau, B., Meyer, A. and O'Mahony, M. (1998) Power and sensitivity of the same-different test: comparison with triangle and duo-trio procedures. J. Sensory Stud., 13, 149-173. Schiffman, S.S., Crofton, V.A. and Becker, T.G. (1985) Sensory evaluations of soft drinks with various sweeteners. Physiol. Behav., 34, 369-377. Zacarias, I., Yanez, C.G., Araya, M., Oraka, C., Olivares, M. and Uauy, R. (2001) Determination of the taste threshold of copper in water. Chem. Senses, 26, 85-89. Zacharias, R. and Tuorila, H. (1979) Der Reiz-und Erkennungsschwellenwert für Metallverbindungen in verscheidenen Prüfmedien [Taste thresholds for metallic salts in different media].

- by Harry Lawless and +1
- •
- Chemical, Biological Sciences, Copper, Smell

The carbonyl function of volatile aldehydes is discussed from methodological point of view (reactivity and analysis method). From this presentation, an inventory of volatile aldehydes recovered in smoked fishes are carried out. Then, the different pathways possible for the formation of these molecules are explained in order to better understand their occurence in smoked fish aroma. Maillard reactions for the

- by Carole Prost
- •
- Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Lipid Oxidation, Maillard reaction

After a long initial stage obscured by empirism and misconceptions, oxygen-ozonetherapy has now become a scientific discipline where the reactions between ozone and human blood are within the realm of orthodox biochemistry, physiology and pharmacology. Most of the basic mechanisms of action have been clarified and ozone can be considered a pro-drug, which almost instantaneously reacts with antioxidants and unsaturated fatty acids. These reactions generate the actual ozone messengers represented by either hydrogen peroxide as a fast acting compound or a variety of lipid oxidation products as late effectors. While ozone is totally consumed, micromolar amounts of these messengers are able to enhance the delivery of oxygen via erythrocyte activation, the immune system by a bland leukocyte stimulation and most of the remaining body cells by up-regulating the antioxidant system. The hazard of ozone toxicity has been dispelled by using the gas only within a dose range perfectly calibrated against the potent blood antioxidant capability. Ozonetherapy can be very useful in patients with chronic vascular disorders and ischemic problems and should be extensively used by official medicine. An extraordinary facet of ozone is its medical application versatility, as represented by several administration routes, and the minimal cost of this drug.

- by Iacopo Zanardi
- •
- Lipid Oxidation, Hydrogen Peroxide, Immune system, Peripheral Vascular Disease
- by John Coupland
- •
- Lipid Oxidation, Food Sciences

Chemical and sensory changes in low fat (15 g kg À1 ) pasteurized milk stored under fluorescent light at 4 C in 500 mL bottles made of (a) multilayer pigmented [HDPE (high-density polyethylene)+20 g kg À1 TiO 2 /HDPE+40 g kg À1 carbon black/HDPE+20 g kg À1 TiO 2 ], (b) monolayer pigmented [HDPE+20 g kg À1 TiO 2 ], (c) clear PET (polyethylene terephthalate) and (d) pigmented [PET+20 g kg À1 TiO 2 ] were monitored for a period of 7 days. Milk packaged in coated paperboard cartons and stored under the same experimental conditions served as the ''control'' sample. Data were obtained for lipid oxidation, vitamin A and riboflavin content, microbial growth and sensory attributes (odour and taste). Results showed good protection of milk packaged in all packaging materials with regard to microbiological and chemical parameters assessed over the 7-day test period. Vitamin A losses recorded were 11% for multilayer and monolayer pigmented HDPE and pigmented PET bottles vs. 16% for the paperboard cartons and 31% for the clear PET bottles after 7 days of storage. Respective losses for riboflavin were 28% for the multilayer pigmented HDPE bottle and the paperboard carton, 30% for the monolayer pigmented HDPE bottle, 33% for the pigmented PET bottle and 40% for the clear PET bottle. Based on sensory analysis the shelf life of low fat (15 g kg À1 ) pasteurized milk is approximately 5 days. The best overall protection for the product was provided by the multilayer followed by the monolayer TiO 2 -pigmented HDPE bottle. Such packaging materials are recently emerging in the fresh milk packaging market. r

- by Anastasia Badeka
- •
- SHELF LIFE, Dairy, Lipid Oxidation, Clinical Sciences

Lipid oxidation of pressurized (300 and 500 MPa for 30 min at 20 C) or cooked (90 C for 15 min) minced chicken breast and slurries was evaluated. Mechanical processing, before and after pressurization and cooking, and addition of sodium chloride were also tested as prooxidant factors. At 1, 3, 6 and 9 days of storage at 4 C, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and hexanal were quantified by means of the TBARS test and solid phase microextraction, respectively. In general, pressurized samples presented less oxidation compounds than cooked samples. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and hexanal values tended to rise with increasing storage time. Both parameters showed similar patterns throughout the experiment. Salt and mechanical processing had greater prooxidant effect on pressurized samples. Pre-treatment slurries presented more oxidation than post-treatment slurries. #

- by Montserrat Mor-Mur and +1
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Meat Science, Animal Production, Solid Phase Microextraction

Several synthetic antioxidants are authorized for use as feed additives in the European Union. Ethoxyquin (EQ) and butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) are generally added to fish meal and fish oil, respectively, to limit lipid oxidation. The study was conducted to examine the concentrations of EQ, BHT and butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) in several commercially important species of farmed fish, namely Atlantic salmon, halibut and cod and rainbow trout, as well as concentrations in fish feed. The highest levels of BHT, EQ and BHA were found in farmed Atlantic salmon fillets, and were 7.60, 0.17 and 0.07 mg kg À1 , respectively. The lowest concentrations of the synthetic antioxidants found were in cod. The concentration of the oxidation product ethoxyquin dimer (EQDM) was more than ten-fold higher than the concentration of parent EQ in Atlantic salmon halibut and rainbow trout, whereas this dimer was not detected in cod fillets. The theoretical consumer exposure to the synthetic antioxidants EQ, BHA and BHT from the consumption of farmed fish was calculated. The contribution of EQ from a single portion (300 g) of skinned fillets of the different species of farmed fish would contribute at most 15% of the acceptable daily intake (ADI) for a 60 kg adult. The consumption of farmed fish would not contribute measurably to the intake of BHA; however, a 300 g portion of farmed Atlantic salmon would contribute up to 75% of the ADI for BHT.

- by K. Hamre
- •
- Food Safety, Diet, European Union, Aquaculture

This paper reviews the factors affecting the fatty acid composition of adipose tissue and muscle in pigs, sheep and cattle and shows that a major factor is the total amount of fat. The effects of fatty acid composition on meat quality are also reviewed. Pigs have high levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), including the long chain (C20-22) PUFA in adipose tissue and muscle. The full range of PUFA are also found in sheep adipose tissue and muscle whereas cattle 'conserve' long chain PUFA in muscle phospholipid. Linoleic acid (18:2n À 6) is a major ingredient of feeds for all species. Its incorporation into adipose tissue and muscle in relation to the amount in the diet is greater than for other fatty acids. It is deposited in muscle phospholipid at a high level where it and its long chain products eg aracidonic acid (20:4n À 6) compete well for insertion into phospholipid molecules. Its proportion in pig adipose tissue declines as fat deposition proceeds and is an index of fatness. The same inverse relationships are not seen in ruminant adipose tissue but in all species the proportion of 18:2n À 6 declines in muscle as fat deposition increases. The main reason is that phospholipid, where 18:2n À 6 is located, declines as a proportion of muscle lipid and the proportion of neutral lipid, with its higher content of saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids, increases. Oleic acid (18:1cis À 9), formed from stearic acid (18:0) by the enzyme stearoyl Co-A desaturase, is a major component of neutral lipid and in ruminants the same enzyme forms conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), an important nutrient in human nutrition. Like 18:2n À 6, a-linolenic acid (18:3n À 3) is an essential fatty acid and is important to ruminants since it is the major fatty acid in grass. However it does not compete well for insertion into phospholipid compared with 18:2n À 6 and its incorporation into adipose tissue and muscle is less efficient. Greater biohydrogenation of 18:3n À 3 and a long rumen transit time for forage diets also limits the amount available for tissue uptake compared with 18:2n À 6 from concentrate diets. A positive feature of grass feeding is that levels of the nutritionally important long chain n À 3 PUFA are increased ie EPA (20:5n À 3) and DHA (22:6n À 3). Future research should focus on increasing n À 3 PUFA proportions in lean carcasses and the use of biodiverse pastures and conservation processes which retain the benefits of fresh leafy grass offer opportunities to achieve this. The varying fatty acid compositions of adipose tissue and muscle have profound effects on meat quality. Fatty acid composition determines the firmness/oiliness of adipose tissue and the oxidative stability of muscle, which in turn affects flavour and muscle colour. Vitamin E is an essential nutrient, which stabilises PUFA and has a central role in meat quality, particularly in ruminants.

- by Jeff Wood
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Genetics, Meat Science, Animal Production

Antioxidant potential of phenolic compounds from green pepper (Piper nigrum L.) and lignans from fresh mace (Myristica fragrans) were evaluated for their ability to scavenge 1,1′-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, inhibit lipid peroxidation and protect plasmid DNA damage upon exposure to gamma radiation. EC50 values of the major phenolic compounds of green pepper namely, 3,4-dihydroxyphenyl ethanol glucoside, 3,4-dihydroxy-6-(N-ethylamino) benzamide and phenolic acid glycosides were found to be 0.076, 0.27 and 0.12 mg/ml, respectively, suggesting a high radical scavenging activity of these phenolics. These results were further confirmed with cyclic voltammetry. Acetone extract of nutmeg mace and its subsequent TLC isolated fractions constituted mainly of lignans as revealed by GC–MS analysis. The major compounds were tentatively identified from their mass spectral fragmentation pattern. DPPH radical scavenging capacity of the acetone extract as well as its fractions was comparatively lower than that of green pepper phenolics. In contrast, these fractions had a greater ability to inhibit lipid oxidation than phenolics from pepper as revealed by β-carotene–linoleic acid assay. A DNA protecting role of these compounds even at doses as high as 5 kGy further suggested the potential use of green pepper and fresh nutmeg mace and their extracts as a nutraceutical in preventing oxidative damage to cells.

- by Prasad Variyar
- •
- Pepper, Food Chemistry, Cyclic Voltammetry, Multidisciplinary

Lipid oxidation is a significant problem relative to off-flavour and off-odour, and warmed-over flavour appears to be related to lipid oxidation in meat. In this review article the thiobarbituric acid (TBA) test for lipid oxidation measurements is described. Works on other techniques to measure lipid oxidation, as determination of malondialdehyde content by high performance liquid chromatography or gas chromatography are reviewed. A detailed description of the different TBA test procedures, possible interferences and limitations of this technique are also given. 0 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved

- by Antonio Lopez
- •
- Food Chemistry, Comparative Study, Multidisciplinary, Quality Control

A modified beef hamburger patty enriched in polyunsaturated n−3 fatty acids and α-tocopherol was developed using technological procedures. Raw meat was obtained from low-cost parts of beef carcasses (brisket and flank) to which visible fat and connective tissue was manually eliminated and substituted by a mixture of preemulsified olive, corn, and deodorized fish oil. The developed product was analyzed and compared to conventional beef hamburger patties for their proximate composition, fatty acid profile, and consumer acceptability. The effects of cooking on the fat content and fatty acid profile of the developed product were investigated. Additionally, the lipid oxidation and surface color stability of modified and conventional hamburgers were investigated during 8 days of refrigerated storage while packaged in a modified atmosphere (20%/80% CO 2 /O 2 ) and subsequently cooking. The developed product showed significantly lower total fat, cholesterol, sodium, and calorie content than beef hamburger patties manufactured using conventional procedures. In addition, the polyunsaturated fatty acids/saturated fatty acids and n−6/n−3 ratios matched nutritional recommendations more closely. No evidence of lipid oxidation was found for the modified hamburger patties during 8-day storage period, and surface color, especially redness, was more stable than in conventional ones. Additionally, consumer acceptability of the developed patty after it was cooked was acceptable and similar to that of conventional products. The modified hamburger patty developed by technological methods is viable and can be considered a useful food to preclude nutritional disorders or to assist in nutritional regimens.

- by Jose Miranda
- •
- Connective tissue, Fish Oil, Lipid Oxidation, Fatty Acid

ABSTRACT Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) leaves were successively extracted with hexane, ethyl ether, ethyl acetate and ethanol. The ethanol extract was reextracted in a separatory funnel with petroleum ether, ethyl ether, ethyl acetate and butanol. The ethyl ether layer was the most effective in stabilizing lard against oxidation, with activity equal to butylated hydroxytoluene. It also showed antioxidant activity when tested on vegetable oils under storage or frying conditions. The main antioxidant factors isolated from the ethyl ether layer consisted of flavonoids. Chromatographic and spectrophotometric analysis demonstrated the presence of the flavone apigenin, the flavanone, eriodictyol and the dihydroflavonols, dihydrokaempferol and dihydroquercetin.

- by Vasso Oreopoulou
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Lipid Oxidation, Vegetable oil, Antioxidant Activity

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) manifestations is rapidly increasing worldwide, and is becoming an important health problem. Actually, MetS includes a combination of clinical complications such as obesity (central adiposity), insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, dyslipidemia, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease and hypertension. All these alterations predispose individuals to type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease inducing earlier mortality rates among people.

- by Estibaliz Goyenechea and +1
- •
- Obesity, Diet, Cardiovascular disease, Metabolic syndrome
- by Mohammed Wasim Siddiqui
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Food, Functional Food, Food Quality

Lipid oxidation is important to food manufacturers especially when they increase unsaturated lipids in their products to improve nutritional profiles. Unfortunately, the number of antioxidants available to food manufacturers to control oxidative rancidity is limited and the approval of new antioxidants is unlikely due to economic barriers in obtaining government approval for new food additives. Therefore, new antioxidant technologies are needed for food oils. This paper reviews the current knowledge of lipid oxidation in foods with emphasis on how physical properties of food systems impact oxidation chemistry. In particular, the role of association colloids in bulk oils on lipid oxidation chemistry is discussed in an attempt to understand mechanisms of oxidation. Increasing the understanding of how physical properties impact lipid oxidation could lead to the development of novel antioxidant technologies that not only protect the oil against oxidation and increase shelf-life but also allow food manufacturers to include more nutritionally beneficial fatty acids in their products.

- by Ryan Elias
- •
- Physical Chemistry, Nutrition and Dietetics, Structure, Animal Production

The metabolic pathways of lactic acid bacteria that influence bread quality are coupled to the central carbon flux by the availability of cofactors influencing the cellular and environmental redox potential. Homo-and heterofermentative metabolism differ fundamentally with respect to the requirement for regeneration of reduced cofactors, NADH or NADPH. The utilization of co-substrates such as oxygen or fructose as electron acceptors by obligate heterofermentative lactobacilli is coupled to an increased production of acetate in dough. Recently, several oxidoreductases involved in cofactor regeneration were characterized and glutathione and short-chain aldehydes derived from lipid oxidation were identified as substrates for cofactor regeneration by Lactobacillus sanfranciscensis. Based on the different metabolic requirements for cofactor regeneration, homo-and heterofermentative lactobacilli exert divergent effects on redox-reactions in sourdough that influence bread quality beyond the formation of acetate.

- by Michael Gänzle
- •
- Microbiology, Industrial Biotechnology, Food Microbiology, Lactic Acid Bacteria
- by Costas Stathopoulos
- •
- Green Tea, Food Industry, Lipid Oxidation, Human health

The calyx of the roselle plant has long been recognised as a source of antioxidants. The objective of this study was to evaluate antioxidant activity, free radical-scavenging and total phenolic content in other parts of the roselle plant. Roselle seed extracts were found to have the highest antioxidant activity and strongest radical-scavenging activity of all plants tested. Methanol extracts showed a positive correlation between phenolic content and antioxidant activity, as measured by b-carotene bleaching assay and DPPH radical-scavenging activity. The antioxidant efficacy of roselle seeds in a whole food system was investigated by testing the effect on lipid oxidation in cooked beef patties stored at 4°C for 14 days. Results showed that patties treated with roselle seeds had reduced lipid oxidation compared to patties treated with BHT. This study suggests that roselle seeds have the potential to be used as food antioxidants.

- by Amin Ismail
- •
- Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Lipid Oxidation, Antioxidant Activity

The effect of packaging in nitrogen (N 2 ) atmosphere or in air on the quality of peeled and roasted almond var. Guara during storage for 20 weeks at 20 C AE 1 C and 65-70% relative humidity (RH) was studied. No changes in the sugar, fat, protein or fiber contents were observed during the storage period nor in color. Only the lipid fraction showed significant changes with the kind of packaging atmosphere. The composition of fatty acids remained unchanged during the 5 month storage in all the samples. Packaging in N 2 atmosphere was seen to have a protective effect against the accumulation of conjugated dienes (CD) in peeled almonds, while in roasted almonds, the protective effect was lower and even nil by the end of storage. The contrary effect was observed for the ultraviolet (UV; K 270 ) index which increased more slowly in the roasted samples packaged in N 2 , while in peeled samples it reached the same levels at the end of storage regardless of the packaging atmosphere. No effect of the packaging atmosphere was observed on the evolution of the peroxide value in the tested samples (peeled or roasted almonds). None of these changes in the lipid fraction was reflected in the final sensory quality of the samples and the taster panel found no changes in the sensory quality in any case.

- by Francisco Borja F Flores
- •
- Food Science, Pigmentation, Water, Food Science and Technology

The MAP kinase protein family has a critical role in cellular signaling events, with MAP kinase p38α acting in inflammatory processes and being an important drug discovery target. MAP kinase drug design efforts have focused on small molecule inhibitors of the ATP catalytic site, which exhibit dose-limiting adverse effects. Therefore, characterizing other potential sites that bind substrates, inhibitors or allosteric effectors is of great interest. Here, we present the crystal structure of p38α MAP kinase, which has a lead compound bound in both the active site and in the lipid-binding site of the C-terminal cap. This C-terminal cap is formed from an extension to the kinase fold, unique to the MAP kinase and CDK families, and GSK-3 kinase. Binding of this lead, 4-[3-(4fluorophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl]pyridine, to wild-type p38α induces movement of the C-terminal cap region, creating a hydrophobic pocket centered around residue Trp197. Computational analysis of this C-Terminal domain pocket indicates notable flexibility for potentially binding different shaped compounds, including lipids, oxidized arachidonic acid species such as leukotrienes and small molecule effectors. Furthermore, our structural results defining the open p38α C-lobe pocket provide a detailed framework for the design of novel small molecules with affinities comparable to active site binders: to bind and potentially modulate the shape and activity of p38α in predetermined ways. Moreover, these results and analyses of p38α suggest strategies for designing specific binding compounds applicable to other MAP kinases, as well as the CDK kinase family and GSK-3β that also utilize the C-terminal insert in their interactions.

- by John Tainer and +1
- •
- Molecular Biology, Drug Discovery, Macromolecular X-Ray Crystallography, Crystal structure

The aim of the study was the optimisation of Spirulina platensis drying on convective hot air through the response surface methodology. The responses were thiobarbituric acid (TBA) and phycocyanin loss percentage values in final product. Experiments were carried out in perforated tray drier with parallel air flow, and the wet samples thickness and drying air temperatures were in range of 3-7 mm and 50-70°C, respectively. The statistical analysis showed significant effect (P < 0.05) for air temperature and samples thickness. In the best drying condition, 55°C and 3.7 mm, presented the phycocyanin loss percentage and the TBA values of approximately 37% and 1.5 mg MDA kg )1 , respectively. In this drying condition, the fatty acids composition of the microalgae Spirulina did not show significance difference (P > 0.05) in relation to fresh biomass. The lipid profile of dried product presented high percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (34.4%), especially the gamma-linolenic acid (20.6%).

- by Luiz Pinto
- •
- Technology, Food, Evaluation, Microalgae

The acid and alkaline solubilization processes for isolating muscle protein from ground fish raw materials are investigated by scrutinizing the literature. Following an introduction to the processes, with some underlying chemistry, patents related to the acid and alkaline solubilization process are described together with previously patented methods for processing of protein isolates. Focus is then placed on comparing a range of factors important in fish muscle protein isolation between the acid and alkaline solubilization processes, and classic washing-based surimi technology. The factors addressed were: protein yield, gel quality, color, lipid reduction, lipid oxidation, microbial stability, and frozen storage stability. A long series of studies made with different fish/shellfish species have been used for this purpose. Certain results are summarized in table form (protein yields, gel strength, and whiteness), others only in text form. From this part of the review, it is obvious that the acid process often has certain advantages (e.g., protein yield) and the alkaline process other ones (gel strength, whiteness, lipid removal, lipid oxidation, and total microbial count). Thus, the choice of method depends on the application. It is clear that most species respond differently to acid and alkaline solubilization, which is why the two methods are initially compared. In a section about new processing attempts, the use of the acid and alkaline methodology for isolating proteins from whole fish/shellfish and fish by-products is reviewed together with attempts to recover waste water proteins and attempts to modify the process. Tentative uses of the new protein isolates, e.g., as coatings, protein brines, and emulsifiers are finally described together with some conclusions and future opportunities for the acid and alkaline processes.

- by Art Mireles
- •
- Methodology, FISH, Raw materials, Processing

Lipid oxidation is a major cause of deterioration of the quality of stored meat arrd meat products. This review deals with the mechanism and the methods used to follow lipid oxidation, as well as the interaction of lipids/lipid oy~idation products with food components and their possible biological effects. Emphasis is given to the presentation of the anti-and pro-oxidant properties of various compounds and conditions; their relative importance in oxidative rancidity is discussed.

- by Vladimiros Lougovois
- •
- Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Free Radical, Food Quality

The effect of lutein (200 mg/g meat), sesamol (250 mg/g meat), ellagic acid (300 mg/g meat) and olive leaf extract (200 mg/g meat) on total viable counts (TVC), pH, water holding capacity (WHC), cooking loss, lipid oxidation (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, TBARs), colour stability, texture and sensory evaluation of fresh and cooked pork sausages stored in aerobic or modified atmosphere packs (MAP) was investigated. Addition of sesamol, ellagic acid and olive leaf extract reduced (P < 0.001) lipid oxidation in all packaged raw and cooked pork sausages. Antioxidant potency followed the order: sesamol 250 > ellagic acid 300 > olive leaf extract 200 > lutein 200 for both raw and cooked pork sausages. Addition of sesamol increased (P < 0.001) WHC on days 2 and 12 of MAP storage. Meat addition of lutein, sesamol, ellagic acid and olive leaf extract had no detrimental effect on pH, cooking losses, TVCs, tenderness, juiciness, texture or product flavour. Lutein, sesamol, ellagic acid and olive leaf extract were effective as natural functional ingredients in suppressing lipid oxidation and have the potential to be incorporated into functional raw and cooked pork sausages.

- by Joe Kerry
- •
- Animal Production, SHELF LIFE, Lipid Oxidation, Sensory Evaluation

Casings formed from pectin (PN) containing 2.5% and 5% corn oil (CO) and olive oil (OO) and gelatine/sodium alginate blends (GSAB) containing 2.5% CO and OO respectively were used for sausage manufacture. Mechanical properties and water content of casings were assessed prior to application. Following sausage manufacture, product quality and shelf-life evaluation were assessed in terms of sensory attributes, instrumental colour, moisture loss and lipid oxidation. All manufactured casings were of good quality and initially produced intact and stable sausage products. However, with time, shrinkage of products occurred where GSAB casings were used. Sensory analysis of sausages showed that PN casings were more preferred to GSAB casings for sausage manufacture. CIE colour analysis supported sensory evaluation. Water losses from sausages using GSAB casings were lower compared to sausages using PN casings due to GSAB casings having higher ability to trap and absorb water compared to PN casings. Lipid oxidation developed over time for all sausage products, however, sausages manufactured using GSAB casings containing both CO and OO at 2.5% had better oxygen barrier properties compared to sausages manufactured using PN containing the same concentration of emulsified oils. Sausages manufactured using casings containing OO were more prone to lipid oxidation than those using CO. Importantly, sausages manufactured using PN casings containing 5.0% CO were extremely stable to lipid oxidation over a six day storage period and significantly, were <1 on the TBARS numbers scale.

- by Joe Kerry
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Meat Science, Olive Oil, Animal Production

The aim of this research was to determine the content of the histidinic antioxidants, advanced glycation end products (pentosidine) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) in the meat from different animal species. Carnosine, anserine, homocarnosine and pentosidine were quantified by HPLC/MS, while TBARS was determined by photometric measurements. The total CRCs (carnosine + anserine + homocarnosine) content was in the increasing order: beef < rabbit < pork < horse < chicken < turkey. The analysis showed traces of pentosidine above the instrumental determination limits in all the meat samples, while the susceptibility of these meat to lipid oxidation decreased from beef to chicken, with the exception of turkey meat, which presented a high TBARS content towards even though its total CRCs was the highest. The structure of homocarnosine was elucidated by high resolving power multistage mass spectrometry.

- by Claudio Medana
- •
- Mass Spectrometry, Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Lipid Oxidation

The calyx of the roselle plant has long been recognised as a source of antioxidants. The objective of this study was to evaluate antioxidant activity, free radical-scavenging and total phenolic content in other parts of the roselle plant. Roselle seed extracts were found to have the highest antioxidant activity and strongest radical-scavenging activity of all plants tested. Methanol extracts showed a positive correlation between phenolic content and antioxidant activity, as measured by β-carotene bleaching assay and DPPH radical-scavenging activity. The antioxidant efficacy of roselle seeds in a whole food system was investigated by testing the effect on lipid oxidation in cooked beef patties stored at 4 °C for 14 days. Results showed that patties treated with roselle seeds had reduced lipid oxidation compared to patties treated with BHT. This study suggests that roselle seeds have the potential to be used as food antioxidants.

- by Amin Ismail
- •
- Food Chemistry, Multidisciplinary, Lipid Oxidation, Antioxidant Activity

Eight batches of ground fat and eight batches of a mixture of meat and fat (70 and 30%, respectively), were prepared by adding salt, paprika and garlic, in the proportions used for making chorizo Ð a dry fermented sausage Ð stued into natural casings and then ripened. The evolution of rancidity in these products was evaluated by means of total free fatty acid content, peroxide value and TBARS during the ripening period. Spanish paprika and salt showed antioxidant and prooxidant properties, respectively. Paprika was even able to inhibit the prooxidant eect of salt. Also, four batches of chorizo were made to compare the antioxidant eect of the spices (garlic and paprika) with a mixture of nitrate, nitrite and ascorbic acid. In this respect, paprika and garlic were as eective as the mixture of additives in inhibiting lipid oxidation. #

- by javier mateo
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Meat Science, Animal Production, Lipid Oxidation

Carotenoprotein from shells of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) was extracted with the aid of proteases from hepatopancreas of the same species at various levels
(5–30 units/g shrimp shell) for different times (0–180 min). Recovery of carotenoprotein increased with increasing protease levels and hydrolysis times, but mainly reached the plateau at 120 min of hydrolysis. Carotenoprotein contained astaxanthin and astaxanthindiester as major carotenoids. Carotenoids extracted from carotenoprotein showed increasing
ABTS, DPPH radical scavenging activities, FRAP and metal chelating activity when the concentrations increased up to 5 mg/ml (po0.05). Carotenoprotein consisted of 73.58% protein, 21.87% lipids and 2.63% ash contents. It was rich in essential amino acids and Asp/Asn and Glu/Gln were found as dominant amino acids. Therefore, carotenoprotein from shell of Pacific white shrimp could be successfully extracted using shrimp hepatopancreas proteases and could serve as the value-added nutritive food ingredients or as the animal feed

- by Theeraphol Senphan
- •
- Carotenoids, Protease, Lipid Oxidation, Hydrolysis

Some aromatic plants such as Thymbra capitata, Origanum vulgare, and Calamintha baetica are used in some Portuguese traditional meat dishes, particularly in rabbit meat, tomato salads, fish food, escargot, and olives. In the present work, the antioxidant ability of the essential oils extracted from T. capitata, O. vulgare, C. baetica, and Th. mastichina cultivated in a field of the Regional Direction of Agriculture of Algarve (Portugal) was studied. The oils, extracted by hydrodistillation, were analysed by gas chromatography and gaschromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. The antioxidant activity was determined using a modified thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) method, measuring the scavenging effect on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical method, determining the reducing power method, and monitoring the chelating effect on ferrous ions method. The results showed that the oils from O. vulgare and T. capitata had practically the same capacity of preventing ...

- by مصطفي عبدالله
- •
- Mass Spectrometry, Essential Oil, Gas Chromatography, Tomato

Lipolysis and lipid oxidation in Mediterranean and North Europe type sausages were studied in relation to raw material, processing conditions and additives. In particular the effect of ascorbic acid, nitrites and spices was evaluated. Lipolysis was measured by the determination of total and free fatty acids of fresh minces and matured products and lipid oxidation was evaluated by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and cholesterol oxidation products. The increase of free fatty acids during maturation appears to be independent from processing conditions and the differences in polyunsaturated fatty acids increment found among the formulations appear to be due to inherent variations of raw materials. The presence of ascorbic acid and/or nitrite seems important for cholesterol protection and, as a consequence, for the safety of fermented meat products while spices at doses up to 0.1% do not seem to have a remarkable effect. The effect on fatty acid oxidation of the same additives and of the different processing technologies is not significantly different and the variations linked to raw material may play the greatest role. #

- by Alessandra Battaglia
- •
- Chemical Engineering, Meat Science, Animal Production, Raw materials