Kingdoms of Italy - Bishops of Rome (original) (raw)

Bishops of Rome / Popes (Christian Church / Roman Catholic Church) AD 42 - Present Day According to Catholic tradition, Jesus founded the papacy in the first century when he chose St Peter, the leader of the apostles, to be his earthly representative. 'Thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build my church,' he states in chapter 16 of Matthew. 'I will give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven.' Those words, which now circle the dome of St Peter's Basilica in Rome, serve as the biblical mandate for the papacy. All bishops of Rome (the title 'pope' was not used until the fourth century) are considered symbolic descendants of Peter and are thought to hold 'Peter's Chair'. Since then, there have been more than 260 occupants of the papal office. The institution has endured through the defining moments of European history, including the split of the Roman empire, the bloodbath of the Crusades, and the rise of the [Italian](ItalyKingdom.htm#Duchy of Milan) Renaissance. However, the recently rediscovered gospels (found in Egypt) of Philip and of Mary Magdalene ('Magdalene' perhaps meaning 'The Tower') reveal that Mary herself was much more likely to have been Jesus' choice for the leader of his fledgling movement, rather than Peter. A theory has emerged which suggests that there was a power struggle for leadership between Mary - supported by Jesus' brothers and possibly even other female disciples - and Peter, who could not accept that Jesus could appear to a mere woman instead of his trusted (male) disciples. Had Mary won, the church would have been a very different one from that which emerged. It may have been a far less militant church, but possibly one which was less likely to have survived. Even so, women still had a much greater role in the early church than later Roman Catholic church leaders would allow (or even admit). The 'lost' gospels hint at another power struggle between the sexes over the ownership of the church, this time in the second century, and it was not a foregone conclusion which side would win. Generally attributed either to St Paul or a close associate, even the book of Corinthians seems to show a degree of ambiguity, or perhaps enforced change, in the role of women in the early church. The final shots were fired at the First Council in AD 325, when the Catholic Church was fully established. The early sources are the basis for the Catholic Church's official list of popes for the first two centuries, although some sources contradict one another even as far as names and dates. The list was formulated no earlier than about AD 180. Popes during this period did not hold supreme office in the fashion of later holders of the office, but probably led the early church as part of a collective. Anti-popes are shown in red text with shaded backgrounds. (Information by Peter Kessler, with additional information by Dana Grohol, from the BBC documentaries, The Lost Gospels and The Dead Sea Scrolls, both first screened in 2006, from Roger II of Sicily: Ruler between East and West, Hubert Houben (Graham A Loud & Diane Milburn, Trans, 2002), from The Normans, Marjorie Chibnall (Wiley & Sons, 2006), and from External Links: Catholic Online, and Liber Pontificalis (The Book of the Popes), available via the Internet Archive, and Early church found place for female bishops (The Telegraph), and History Extra, and The Shroud of Turin, and History and Organization of the Swedish Lutheran Church (dead link), and America colonisation cooled Earth's climate (BBC News).)
AD ? - c.33	Jesus Christ / Jesus of Nazareth	Founder of a new, Christian, church. Descendant of David of Israel.
c.11 - 6 BC	Jesus, the son of Mary and her husband, Joseph the carpenter (whatever his role in the actual conception of the child), is viewed by some of his peers in Judea as the messiah foretold in the Old Testament. The exact dates relating to him are uncertain, but the year of his birth is traditionally accepted as being 11 BC or 7 BC. However, the census of Quirnius is held in 6 BC, which is the event that forces Mary and Joseph to return home when the former is heavily pregnant. The birth most likely takes place around September, as there is mention of sheep and shepherds being out overnight. In winter the sheep would have been kept indoors overnight so the temperature is clearly too warm for this, and the weather is still convenient for travel. The name of the newborn child is probably more correctly pronounced as Joshua or Yeshua in the original Hebrew, before being passed through Greek, Latin, and English. The teachings of Jesus (whatever his true nature) drew a large following amongst the occupied peoples of Judea and inspired the creation of a new church
c.AD 30 - 33	Generally accepted by historians to be a healer, Jesus of Nazareth starts to preach the restoration of God's kingdom (probably meaning a restoration of the church organisation within Judea). He is soon viewed with suspicion by the Jewish authorities, and also by the occupying Romans, and is arrested, tried and executed by crucifixion about AD 33. The operation is ordered by the Jewish government, and is overseen by the Romans.
c.33 - ?	Mary Magdalene ('tower' or 'fortress')	Disciple of Jesus. Theoretical intended head of Jesus' church?
c.33 - 42	Whether the plans of Jesus had included founding an entirely new church or not, this is what happens, although its birth is clouded in obscurity. Looking at the so-called lost gospels which are later discovered in modernEgypt, it seems that Jesus may have intended Mary Magdalene, a disciple (and more controversially, perhaps even his wife - the Gnostic Gospel of Philip describes her as Jesus' 'companion' - which has the same meaning), to head his movement (either to restore the Judean church or to become the focal point of his new church). Mary is supported by Jesus' brothers, most notably James, but according to the Gnostic writings of the second or third centuries, tensions have long existed between Peter and the male disciples on one side, and Mary and possible other female disciples on the other side. Now that Jesus is not around to keep the peace, a power struggle apparently ensues between them. Ultimately, the group headed by Peter wins. Mary and James and their more inclusive church are sidelined, and a male-dominated, hierarchical church emerges, with Peter at its head.
42 - 67	St Peter / Simon Peter / Simon Cephas	Disciple of Jesus. First official bishop ofRome.
42	Following several missionary journeys, Peter apparently goes toRome and overthrows Simon Magus (Simon the Sorcerer or Simon of Gitta). There, he begins to minister to the early Christians within the empire who are brutally persecuted, often being subject to death games in the Coliseum and public burnings.
c.50	Peter attends the Council of Jerusalem, which decides to accept Gentile (non-Jewish) converts to the new church. It seems that Peter is the one who opposes the Pharisees in their demands for circumcision and Mosaic law in relation to the Gentiles (according to Acts), although he has been guilty himself of treating Gentiles as inferiors to Jewish Christians in the past (the Incident at Antioch). In Asia Minor, the Galatians may be on their way to becoming easternRomans, but they have not entirely forgotten their Gaulish roots. They initially receive St Paul as an angel from heaven but perhaps fail fully to understand the Christian message. Acts (xiii-xiv) indicates that they have to be restrained at Lystra from sacrificing to St Paul, and shortly afterwards they stone 'the Angel of God', and leave him for dead.
c.53	Hierotheos the Thesmothete (a junior archon) is reputedly the first head of the Christians of[Athens](GreeceAthensGreeks.htm#Elected Archons Roman). Instructed by the Apostle Paul, he is baptised and ordained by him about this year. The Roman Church has yet to be established, making this appointment an important one in the spread of the new religion.
67	Peter is crucified upside down by the Romans under Emperor Nero, in mockery of the execution of Jesus. Later Catholic tradition states that this is Peter's choice, as he sees himself unfit to be executed in the same way as Jesus. He is buried on Mons Vaticanus (Vatican Hill, now underneath the Basilica of St Peter, probably directly beneath the altar). Many of the early popes are buried on the same hill. Later tradition says that St Paul is also martyred at the same place as Peter and on the same date (29 June), but not necessarily in the same year.
67 - 76	St Linus	Ordained as a bishop by Peter.
67	Some early sources claim Linus and then Anacletus as the successors of Peter, while others claim Clement as his immediate successor. Anacletus and Cletus are claimed by both the Liberian Catalogue and the Liber Pontificalis as being two different people.
76 - 88	St Anacletus / Anencletus / Cletus	Ordained as a bishop by Peter. Traditionally held to be aRoman.
88 - 97	St Clement I of Rome	Claimed in some early sources as being Peter's official successor.
88	The earliest church fathers are usually known as the Apostolic Fathers, these being teachers of theology who are influential within the growing church within two generations of the apostles themselves. Clement is one of several such Apostolic Fathers, writing the First Epistle of Clement to the church at Corinth about AD 96. The Second Epistle of Clement is generally accepted to have been written by somebody else. Traditionally, Clement is executed by Emperor Trajan inRome, who has him tied to an anchor and thrown into the sea.
97 - 105	St Evaristus / Aristus	Hellenic Jew.
105 - 115	St Alexander I	A[ Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors).
115 -125	St Sixtus I / Xystus I	A[ Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors).
125 - 136	St Telesphorus	A Greek. Suffered martyrdom at the hands of the[ Romans](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors).
132 - 135	The Second Jewish Uprising in Judah is led by Simon Bar Kochba against [ Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors) rule. The Jews are driven out of Jerusalem and a Roman temple dedicated to Jupiter is built on the site of the Jewish temple itself. By 136, although the Romans forbid Jews to enter Jerusalem, Christian pilgrims are permitted entrance.
136 - 140	St Hyginus	From[Athens](GreeceAthensGreeks.htm#Elected Archons Roman).
140 - 155	St Pius I	An Italian and possibly a former slave.
142/143	Marcion of Sinope arrives in [Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors). He begins to construct a theology which proposes two gods instead of one, the vengeful god of the Old Testament and the god of love in the gospels. He is in favour of destroying the Old Testament altogether, and totally removing the Jewish aspect from Christianity. He proposes a definitive list of officially sanctioned gospels (a 'canon', from the Greek word which means 'measuring stick'). He also argues that Jesus had been a form of spirit rather than an ordinary man (an idea which is in line with Gnostic thought). His efforts help form the idea of heresy, where theologies which fit the chosen message (and are therefore orthodox) are sanctioned while all others are condemned and banned. After putting his ides to the first ever council of early church fathers, he is excommunicated, but his ideas live on in a fairly powerful movement of Christians for another two centuries. He is later considered to be one of the greatest heretics of early Christianity.
155 - 168	St Anicetus
168 - 175	St Soterus / Soter	Confirmed Easter as an annual festival in[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors).
175 - 189	St Eleutherius / Eleuterus	Formerly a deacon of the[Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Adoptive Emperors) Church.
175 - 189	It is during the pontificate of Eleutherius that the Montanist movement of Asia Minor (especially inPhrygia) emerges as a problem for the Roman Church. Named after its founder, Montanus, the movement preaches a doctrine which differs from Orthodoxy on several key points, enough so that it is soon labelled a heresy and is banned. It survives in some areas until the eighth century and some have found similarities in it to modern Pentecostalism.
178 - 180?	Lucius of Britain (a possible hereditary High King) writes to the Roman Church requesting to become a Christian. He is later credited by British writers as being responsible for introducing Christianity into Britain although, whether through his involvement or not, a British Church does apparently begin to make its presence felt in the country during this century.
189 - 199	St Victor I	First pope from Africa (Africa Proconsularis).
189 - 199	Victor introduces the Latin mass to Rome, where it replaces the typical mass in Greek. He also takes a firmer stand in the growing disagreement about dating the celebration of the Passover and Easter. The Christian church in Asia Minor celebrates it on the fourteenth day of the Jewish month of Nisan, the day before the Jewish Passover, on whichever day that falls. Rome celebrates Easter only on the Sunday following the fourteenth of Nisan. It is a small difference which is causing increasing friction between the two Christian churches. The most famous act by the Africa-born Pope Victor I is his excommunication of the leatherworker, Theodotus of Byzantium, for his Adoptionist doctrine ('Dynamic Monarchianism', or 'Adoptionism') which proclaimed Jesus of Nazareth to be non-divine
199 - 217	St Zephirinus / Zephyrinus
202 or 203	The edict of persecution is issued inRome. It forbids any conversion to Christianity under the severest penalties. This follows a period of relative relaxation in the persecution of early Christians within the empire.
217 - 222	St Calixtus I / Callixtus	A former slave and then deacon to Zephirinus. Martyred.
c.217 - 222	A highly learned theologian, Hippolytus the priest had previously come into conflict with Zephirinus after accusing the bishop of[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Unassociated Emperors Secundas) of modalism, a heresy which holds that the names Father and Son are simply different names for the same subject instead of being part of the Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Now, he is outraged by Calixtus when the bishop extends absolution to Christians who have committed grave sins such as adultery. Hippolytus seems to allow himself to be elected bishop of Rome in opposition to Calixtus. The Machiavellian Septimus Severus continued to increase the glory of Rome (this surviving arch is named after him) but he continued the imperial practice of Christian persecution
c.217 - 235	Hippolytus (of Rome)	Sometimes considered the first anti-pope.
235 - c.236	Hippolytus is exiled from[ Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Soldier Emperors Secundas) during the persecution of Emperor Maximinus Thrax (along with Bishop Pontianus). He is apparently reconciled with the Roman Church before his martyrdom, which possibly involves him being tied to two horses moving in opposite directions.
222 - 230	St Urban I
230 - 235	St Pontianus / Pontian	Exiled along with Hippolytus.
235 - 236	St Anterius / Anterus	In office for one month and ten days.
236	By this time, Christians are assembling in[ Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Soldier Emperors Secundas) to elect each new head of the Roman Christian Church. Fabianus is a layman who is new to the city, and is apparently chosen after a dove lands on his head, marking him out for special office.
236 - 251	St Fabianus / Fabian / Flavian	Martyred by Emperor Decius.
249 - 251	Fabianus sends out representatives to Christianise Gaul following the dissolution of many small Christian communities there during persecutions by Emperor Decius. However, Decius' next step is to order all citizens within the empire to perform a religious sacrifice while being monitored. Naturally many Christians refuse and are martyred as a result, Fabianus along with them. Decius also bans the election of any replacement. The office is vacant for fourteen months, only being filled when the emperor is forced to leave[ Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Soldier Emperors Secundas) to fight theGoths. He does not return.
c.250	Lutetia Parisiorum, capital of the Parisii tribe in Gaul, receives Christianity according to tradition when St Denis becomes the city's first bishop. Around the middle of the century, St Denis and two of his companions are arrested and decapitated on the hill of Mons Mercurius during the persecutions of Emperor Decius.[Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Soldier Emperors Secundas) foundations have been found here by archaeologists, and after this date the hill is better known as Mons Martyrum (Martyrs' Hill). The name survives today as Montmartre.
Moses	Chief candidate for office but died during the persecutions.
251 - 253	St Cornelius	A reluctant candidate for office.
251 - 258	Novatianus / Novatian	Anti-pope. Believed he would be elected instead of Cornelius.
251 - 253	Incensed at being refused for office in favour of Cornelius, Novatianus is consecrated by three bishops, placing him in opposition as anti-pope. The core of his dislike of Cornelius is the latter's refusal to accept rebaptism as a way of welcoming lapsed Christians back into the church. Cornelius has him and his supporters excommunicated, so Novatianus eventually forms his own church, while Cornelius is killed during the persecutions of Emperor Trebonianus Gallus.
253 - 254	St Lucius I	Temporarily exiled from[ Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Soldier Emperors Secundas) but allowed to return.
254 - 257	St Stephen I	Murdered during Emperor Valerian's persecution.
257	A fresh wave of persecution sees Stephen beheaded by the troops of Emperor Valerian while celebrating mass with his congregation. His successor is able to repair relations with the Eastern Orthodox and African churches following a breach under Stephen.
257 - 259	St Sixtus II / Xystus II	Martyred during Emperor Valerian's persecution.
258	Anti-pope Novatianus flees[ Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Soldier Emperors Secundas) during a period of persecution. His church spreads rapidly and continues to exist for several centuries under the banner of Novatianism, which espouses a form of Puritanism.
259 - 269	St Dionysius	Elected nearly a year after Sixtus' death due to the persecutions.
260	The accession of the new emperor, Gallienus, brings to an end the wave of persecution that Valerian had triggered. Gallienus issues an edict of toleration which lasts until AD 303 and gives the church legal status.
269 - 275	St Felix I
275 - 283	St Eutychianus / Eutychian
c.280	Although Christianity is rapidly spreading throughout Gaul, persistent persecutions and continual conflicts prevent the organisation of the Catholic Church during the first few centuries AD. Adopting the administrative divisions of the Roman empire, the Catholic ecclesiastical authorities make Civitas Tungrorum a diocese (bishopric). This is the capital of the Tungri tribe, but will later become the capital of the prince-bishopric of Liège (see feature link).
283 - 296	St Caius
296 - 304	St Marcellinus	Apparently lapsed under persecution and worshipped pagan idols.
301	Christianity is officially adopted as Armenia's state religion, making it the world's first Christian nation.
304 - 308	The office is vacant during the persecutions of Emperor Diocletian, which begin in 303. Christian soldiers are forced to leave theRoman army, and subsequently church books are destroyed and property is seized. Tougher measures follow which include death for Christians who refuse to apostatise (relinquish their faith). One of the most famous martyrs of this period, killed about 304, is Saint Pancras, a Roman citizen aged fourteen. Shortly after converting to Christianity, he is beheaded for his beliefs. St Lucy, after whom the French named what they originally called the Windward Island, came from a wealthy family, and herself brought food and comfort to poor and needy Christians who were hiding in Rome's catacombs - she was reported to the authorities by her betrothed when he discovered she was giving away her dowry, resulting in her being martyred in AD 304 by a sword thrust into her neck
308 - 309	St Marcellus I	Banished fromRome by the church for severity to the lapsed.
309 or 310	St Eusebius	Banished by Emperor Maxentius for severity to the lapsed.
309/310 - 311	The office is vacant again, either from the date of Eusebius' exile in 309 or his death on 17 August 310.
311 - 314	St Melchiades / Miltiades
313	Emperor Constantine the Great confers imperial favour on the church with the Edict of Milan. He effectively converts the Roman empire to Christianity, giving it much greater influence and strength than it has ever enjoyed up to this date.
314	The First Council of Arles is held, in which three bishops from Britain participate: Eborius of York, Restitutus of London, and Adelphius of Lincoln or possibly Colchester. The Council condemns the heresy of Donatism.
314 - 336	St Sylvester I	First bishop of Rome to use the title of 'Pope'.
325	The first ecumenical Christian council, the 'First Council (Nicaea I)', is held by Constantine the Great in[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas). A new post is created, the bishopric of Jerusalem, and all of the fundamental basics of Catholic Christianity are debated and decided, including which books to include in the Bible (and which to discard because they do not fit the specific message to be broadcast by the church), the date for Easter, and the divinity of Jesus, whereas before he had usually been regarded by his followers as an ordinary (if special) man. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Rome in AD 325, decided upon the basic tenants of the Catholic Church, including the contents of the Bible
Arianism is condemned, and the gospels of Peter (which claims that Jesus did not die), Philip, and Mary (which contradict the 'official' line) are banned. Part of their problem is that they had been written a little later than the more popular, accepted gospels, and have not found such popularity and therefore circulation, despite claiming to be written by disciples themselves. They also muddy the water in terms of the message, a message which even at this stage of the church's existence has to be a clear and strong one for the church to survive. It also has to be clear and strong for Constantine's Roman empire to survive - a single form of Christianity, a soldier's form of Christianity, from which any meaningful female presence around Jesus or in the 'modern' church is erased or sidelined.
326 - 333	Between these two dates the construction of Old St Peter's Basilica is begun under the orders of Emperor Constantine. The site formerly housed the Circus of Nero, and the basilica takes about thirty years to complete. It survives until the sixteenth century. Constantine also begins the construction of other great churches in[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas).
336 - 337	St Marcus / Mark	Credited with founding the Basilica of San Marco in[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas).
337 - 352	St Julius I	Elected four months after the death of Marcus.
352 - 366	Liberius
353 - 354	The Second Council of Arles is called to support Arianism. The two papal legates present refuse to condemn Arius (died AD 336), a Christian presbyter from Egypt who had refused the concept of the Trinity, preaching instead that God existed before Christ. The following year, Liberius is exiled to Thrace by the emperor and is only allowed to return in 356. With Anti-pope Felix already occupying the Roman See, Liberius waits until he is ejected from the city before he himself returns to office.
356	Felix II	Anti-pope. Expelled by the[Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas) people.
359	The Council of Ariminum (modern Rimini) is held in Italy, and three bishops from the British Church participate. It seems that free travel may be extended to all attendees to the council, along with lodgings.
366	Damasus succeeds Liberius amid factional violence. He is elected pope at the same time as Ursinus, former deacon to Liberius. Damasus is elected in San Lorenzo in Lucia, supported by the former followers of Anti-pope Felix, while Ursinus is elected in[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas). The latter's supporters are attacked by those of Damasus, and many are slaughtered during a three-day riot. Emperor Valentinian is forced to intervene to restore peace in the city.
366 - 384	St Damasus I
366 - 367	Ursinus / Ursicinus	Anti-pope. Exiled to Gaul. Returned & exiled again. Died after 384.
378	Ursinus is condemned at a synod and Damasus is confirmed as the true pope. Ursinus continues to press his claim to be the true pope during the election of Siricius in 384.
381	The Second Council (Constantinople I) is held. Arianism is condemned for the second time, but it still becomes a major division of the Christian church, being adopted by most of the Germanic tribes who are beginning to enter the[Roman](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas) empire's territory (the notable exception being the[ Franks](FranceFranks.htm#Tribal Leaders)). The Council definitively establishes Roman Catholic orthodoxy.
384 - 399	St Siricius
385	Siricius issues a decree stating that priests should desist from cohabiting with their wives. It is suggested that Siricius himself had left his wife and children upon his election as pope. (The title 'pope' is at this stage used by many leading bishops, most notably that of Alexandria in Egypt. Only from the sixth century does its use begin to be focused exclusively on the bishop of[Rome](ItalyRomeEmpire.htm#Flavians Secundas).) In the same year, in Augusta Treverorum, Emperor Magnus Maximus sentences to death the bishop of Avila, Priscillian, after he and some of his followers have been found guilty of the crime of magic. The charge is the only way that Priscillian's vehement opponents can be rid of the eloquent and learned promulgator of a doctrine that is based on the Gnostic-Manichaean doctrines of an Egyptian called Marcus. Priscillianism is later declared a heresy, but its teachings persist in Iberia and Ariamir, king of the[Suevi](BarbarianSuevi.htm#Suevi Kingdom), is forced to call the First Council of Braga in 561 to deal with it.
399 - 401	St Anastasius I
401 - 417	St Innocent I	Son (disputed).
410	During the sack ofRome by Alaric theVisigoth, the pagan Germanic people attempt to reintroduce pagan worship into the city. The attempt appears to fail due to public disinterest, suggesting that Rome is now a dedicated Christian city.
416	A synod is held in Carthage (the Council of Carthage) in the province of Africa which takes a firm line against the Pelagian 'heresy'. Pelagius (c.354-420/440) is aBritish ascetic who has allegedly denied the doctrine of original sin and he finds many supporters in Britain, especially amongst the educated classes. He is also the first member of the British Church to be named in any source, perhaps reflecting a school of free-thinking clerics that has developed in the country.
417 - 418	St Zosimus	Deeply involved in the controversy of the Pelagian 'heresy'.
418	On the death of Zosimus, two candidates are put forward for election, Boniface and Eulatius. Galla Placidia, the empress consort of Constantius III, has both men expelled fromRome, but Eulatius returns the following Easter to perform baptisms. The emperor has him stripped of his rank and banishes him from Rome, leaving Boniface to be elected pope on 28 December.
418	Eulatius	Unelected pope. Banished.
418 - 422	St Boniface I	Successful rival of Eulatius.
422 - 432	St Celestine I	Former deacon.
429	St Germanus, bishop of Auxerre, and Lupus, bishop of Troyes, are sent by Pope Celestine to visit Britain so that they can fight the Pelagian 'heresy'. They meet with a still extant Romano-British aristocracy (the principle proponents of the heresy), probably at Verulamium (Caer Mincip, possibly administered from Caer Colun).
431	The Third Council (Ephesus) is held. Nestorianism is condemned and the nature of Christ's human and divine forms is discussed. Part of the result is that Mary is confirmed as the 'Mother of God'. In the same year, after consecrating St Palladius, Celestine send him as the first bishop of the British Church toIreland. It seems that this Palladius is the 'Deacon Palladius' who urges the visit of Germanus to Britain in 429.
432 - 440	St Sixtus III / Xystus III	'Xystus' is used as an alternate spelling for the first three Sixtus.
440 - 461	St Leo I the Great	First pope to be called 'Great'. A fervent centraliser of the church.
447	TheRoman emperor orders the Gnostic texts (those rejected in 325 for inclusion in the New Testament) to be burnt by fire, although their eventual disappearance is caused more by their ceasing to be published.
451	The Fourth Council (Chalcedon) is held. Monophysitism is condemned, but the fatal disaffection of Syria and Egypt is effected (the former eventually forms the Syriac Orthodox Church which survives to the present day). Oriental Orthodoxy develops a distinctive flavour of its own under the patriarchate of Alexandria in Egypt, with the majority of its adherents hailing from Egypt, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and [ Armenia](../KingListsMiddEast/AnatoliaArmenia.htm#Marzban Persian Governors). Palestine is also affected by the division.
452	By this time, the headquarters of Attila the Hun is situated on the west bank of the Danube at Sicambria (Roman Aquincum, and modern Buda). Attila meets Leo I and is persuaded not to attack and destroy Rome, and also to give up slaughtering Christians. Even so, his approach into Italy causes panic, and refugees from Aquileia and other cities escape into the lagoon marshes to form a settlement which becomes Venice. Attila's subsequent withdrawal from Italy and his death the following year are a massive boost for the popularity of the Roman Church, perhaps ensuring its survival and the pre-eminence of the bishop of Rome.
455	Emperor Maximus rules for only 77 days before being stoned to death by a Roman mob while fleeing Genseric's[Vandali](BarbarianVandals.htm#Vandals and Alans) on 24 May, after which the Vandali spend fourteen days sacking Rome. In the same year, theBritish Church alters the date of Easter in line with a Continental change, but another change thirty years later is not followed in Britain. Therefore, contact with the Roman Church is lost during this period. An interpretation of Genseric's sack of Rome in AD 455 by the Russian artist, Karl Briullov, painted between about 1833-1836, perhaps the key moment in the city's fifth century decline
461 - 468	St Hilarus / Hilarus / Hilary	Former archdeacon under Leo.
465	The churches of Iberia have generally functioned outside of papal control until this point. The 'Synod of Rome' in this year confirms papal jurisdiction over Hispania following the request of the bishop of Barcelona for the pope to confirm a specific successor to him in his office.
468 - 483	St Simplicius
476	On 4 September, anOstrogothic general of the Roman army takes Ravenna, effectively ending the empire and replacing its remains with a Gothic kingdom of Italy. However, the bishop of the Church in Rome is largely left alone.
483 - 492	St Felix III	Reputed to be the great-great-grandfather of Gregory the Great.
484	A series of revolts take place within Palaestina Prima. They are launched by the Samaritans against theEastern Roman empire, and both sides exhibit extreme violent tendencies. The first of them is triggered by rumours of the impending removal of the remains of Samaritan heroes. One Justa or Justasas is elected as the Samaritan king before the rebels descend on Caesarea. The Christian church of St Procopius is destroyed and many Christians are killed.
488 - 493	Theodoric leads an Ostrogothic invasion ofItaly and kills Odoacer, before setting up a RomanisedOstrogothic kingdom of Italy based at the imperial capital of Ravenna.
492 - 496	St Gelasius I	Subject of Odoacer's Gothic kingdom, and then theOstrogoths.
495	A fresco uncovered in the catacomb of San Gennaro, Naples, in the second decade of the twenty-first century shows what very much seems to be the figure of a female bishop of the early church. In the very late fifth century or early sixth century, the Bishop Cerula whose likeness is captured in this fresco is fulfilling the normal duties of a bishop in southernItaly. It seems that she is not the only female bishop of the early church. However, in 495 Pope Gelasius writes to the bishops in southern Italy to openly point out that women in those communities are ministering at the holy altars and that this should stop. The pope's command is obeyed (see photo below).
496 - 498	Anastasius II
498	Laurentius	Elected, but stood down. Installed byOstrogoth king in 502.
498 - 514	St Symmachus	Briefly removed from office in 502-506.
498 - 506	Laurentius and Symmachus are both elected pope on the same day, the former by a minority faction with Byzantine sympathies. Symmachus is supported by Theodoric, the Ostrogothic king of Italy, but in 502 the pope's character is stained by trumped up charges laid by one of Laurentius' supporters. Laurentius is installed by Theodoric and remains pope for four years, until his Byzantine leanings become too much for the king and Symmachus is recalled. The fifth century fresco of Bishop Cerula in the San Gennaro catacomb, Naples, destroys the myth that only men ministered to the faithful in the early church and instead adds support to the theory that women played a vital role in the church's early success
502 - 506	Laurentius	A Eastern Roman supporter. 'Temporary pope' until removed in 506.
514 - 523	St Hormisdas
519	A breach with the Church of Constantinople which had opened in 484 is healed by Hormisdas.
523 - 526	St John I	Arrested and imprisoned byOstrogoth king Theodoric and died.
526 - 530	St Felix IV	Theodoric's favoured successor.
526 - 530	It is during the pontificate of Felix than an imperial edict is passed which rules that cases against members of the clergy should be heard by the pope himself. At the same time, from 529, rebels in Palestine take Neapolis. The bishop of Neapolis is murdered along with many of his priests, while local Christians are persecuted and churches destroyed.
530	Dioscorus	Elected. Died 22 days later. Consecrated simultaneous to Boniface.
530 - 533	Boniface II	The first [Germanic](BarbarianGermanics.htm#Later Germanics) pope, anOstrogoth. Never elected.
533 - 535	John II Mercurius	First pope to adopt a new name when elected. Born Mercurius.
533	The last known decree to be issued by the Roman Senate concerns the practice of preferment, the purchase or sale of church offices, which is rife. The practice is banned under Boniface's pontificate and confirmed by theOstrogoth king, Athalaric.
535 - 536	St Agapetus I	Fell ill and died shortly after the Eastern Roman capture of Rome.
536 - 537	St Sylverius / Silverius	Son of Hormisdas. Deposed and eventually exiled.
536 - 537	General Belisarius of the Eastern Roman empire enters Rome shortly before it is besieged by the Ostrogoth King Vittigis. The city suffers starvation until the siege is lifted and Belisarius pursues his opponents. Before he does this he is ordered by Empress Theodora in Constantinople to depose Pope Sylverius in favour of her choice, Vigilius.
Byzantine Popes (Christian Church / Roman Catholic Church) AD 537 - 752 The authority of the Eastern Roman empire had been playing an ever more prominent role in influencing the actions of the papacy, perhaps from as early as 475 and the official termination of theWestern Roman empire. However, with the freeing of Rome by General Belisarius from Ostrogoth rule in 537, the Byzantine emperors now demanded the final say in electing the pope. Many popes of this period were appointed from the apocrisiarii, the papal liaison to the emperor. In later years the task of selecting the pope would be delegated to the exarchate of Ravenna, the city through which the Byzantine empire controlledItaly. It was only when Byzantine authority in Italy began to decline during the eighth century that papal authority was able to reassert itself.
537 - 556	Vigilius	First of the popes to be under Eastern Roman domination.
542 - 544	The 'Plague of Justinian' strikes Constantinople with the arrival of bubonic plague, and it quickly spreads to Italy. TheEastern Roman empire is devastated by it, and critically weakened at the point at which it is about to conquer all of Italy from its base atRavenna and bring it under the rule of one Roman emperor for the first time since 395.
546 - 552	The Ostrogoths recapture Rome under the leadership of Baduila. An attempt to relieve it by the much larger Eastern Roman forces narrowly fails and it is sacked by the otherwise merciful and disciplined Ostrogoth It takes until 552 for the Byzantine empire to regain control over the city, and an exarchate is set up atRavenna (the seat of the lateWestern Roman emperors) to govern Italy. Typical coins issued under Justin I and Justinian I, who were responsible for a resurgence in the power of Roman emperors in the east
553	The Fifth Council (Constantinople II) is held. Monophysitism is condemned again, this time by Vigilius. Empress Theodora in Constantinople (now deceased) had helped him to the papacy on the understanding, supported by cash, that he would be a supporter of Monophysitism.
556 - 561	Pelagius I
561	King Ariamir of the [ Suevi](BarbarianSuevi.htm#Suevi Kingdom) in Iberia calls the First Council of Braga to deal with the continuing problem of the Priscillianism heresy and to decide various other matters related to the Roman Church. Priscillian had been a late fourth century Iberian Roman who developed a doctrine based on the Gnostic-Manichaean doctrines of an Egyptian called Marcus. His work had been declared heresy after his death in 385. Following the successful council, Priscillianism soon dies out.
561 - 575	John III	Pope during theLombard invasion and poorly recorded.
568 - 572	TheLombards invade northern Italy. Rome is temporarily isolated during this period and records are destroyed, leaving little information about the pontificate of John III. The pontificate is vacant for eleven months following his death as communications with the Eastern Roman empire are extremely difficult.
569	King Theodemar of the [ Suevi](BarbarianSuevi.htm#Suevi Kingdom) in Iberia (or possibly Miro, his successor) convenes the First Council of Lugo to increase the number of dioceses in his kingdom, possibly because parts of it are under the religious administration of bishops whose seats are in the Visigoth kingdom. It would appear that several new dioceses are in fact created as these are represented in the Second Council of Braga in 572.
575 - 579	Benedict I / Bonosus	Died during a famine which followed theLombard attacks.
575 - 579	Benedict had been born into the Roman nobility in 480. He lives as a mountain hermit before founding the famous Benedictine monastery at Monte Cassino in Italy. He founds eleven more monasteries and survives an attempted assassination by blessing a poisoned cup. Elected as the 62nd Pope, his four year reign is troubled by war and famine.
579 - 590	Pelagius II	Son of Winigild, probably of Ostrogothic descent. Plague victim.
580	Eastern Roman Emperor Tiberius II reorganises the surviving Roman territories in Italy into five provinces which are given the Greek name eparchies. The new provinces are the Annonaria in northern Italy around Ravenna, Calabria, Campania, Emilia and Liguria, and the Urbicaria around the city of Rome (Urbs). To the north, the duchy of Venice remains nominally under the service of the Eastern Romans.
589	About this year, the Visigoths and their Romano-Hispanic subjects are led by King Recared to abandon Arian Christianity in favour of the Roman Church.
590 - 604	St Gregory I the Great / Gregorius	Also known in the east as Gregory Dialogus.
590 - 591	Theodelinda, daughter of Garibald I of[Bavaria](GermanyBavarians.htm#Bavarian Confederation), rules the Lombard kingdom ofItaly briefly upon the death of her husband. She is a Nicene Christian, an adherent of the Roman Church, and is very important in terms of increasing the importance and reach of the Catholic church in Italy over Arian Christianity. Thanks in large part to her efforts in winning converts the church at Rome is able to secure its primacy in Italy and can begin to focus its attention on making fresh converts elsewhere. Pope Gregory I was one of the most important and influential figures for the early papacy, spreading Christianity to new outposts such as Corsica, Sardinia, and England
594	The pagan Prince Ospitone ofSardinia is reprimanded for his attacks on Christians on the island by Pope Gregory I in a letter entitled Dum enim Barbaricini omnes ut insensata animalia vivant, deum verum nesciant, ligna autem et lapides adorent ('Living, all like irrational animals, ignorant of the true God and worshiping wood and stone'). The prince is soon convinced by Gregory to convert to Christianity, perhaps due in part to the situation regarding his ongoing conflict with theEastern Roman Dux Zabarda. His followers are not so easily convinced. The prince is ostracised for a short period before his people accept conversion under the Christian missionaries, Felix and Ciriaco.
597	Augustine is sent by Pope Gregory to England to establish the Catholic church and Christianise the Anglo-Saxons. He is cautiously received inKent, thanks to King Ethelbert's Christian wife, and establishes the archbishopric at Canterbury. In the same year, the pope writes to Bishop Peter of Alaria on the island ofCorsica, which suggests that Christianity has already entered the island, at least to a degree. The bishop is instructed to recover converts who have lapsed (a regular process in newly-converted regions), and to convert more of the island's pagans. Bishop Peter is also sent funds for the purchase of additional baptismal robes. The result of the bishop's work is unclear, as Alaria is left unattended by ecclesiastical authority in 601.
603	The first meeting takes place between the Roman Church in the form of St Augustine ofCanterbury, and the Celtic Church (the descendant of the formerBritish Church of theRoman period). A church organisation seems to have survived intact from prior to the Saxon takeover of some regions of the country, and the meeting goes favourably for Augustine. A second meeting is quickly arranged, although perhaps not in the same year. It is attended by seven bishops of the Celtic Church, along with many learned monks, but the Britons are not impressed with Augustine's imperious manner and the meeting ends in disappointment for the Roman envoy, with no agreements of cooperation or unity being reached between the two churches, especially in regard to the important question of the calculations for Easter and evangelising the paganEnglish.
604 - 607	Sabinianus / Sabinian
607 - 608	Boniface III	Elected successor but remained in Constantinople for almost 1 yr.
608 - 615	St Boniface IV	Succeeded after a vacancy of nine months.
609	Under Boniface IV, the Pantheon in Rome is converted from a pagan temple into a Christian church, the first such instance of this in the city.
615 - 619	St Deusdedit / Adeodatus I / Deodatus I
615	Tradition accords Pope Deusdedit with the honour of creating the papal bull, when he uses lead seals ('bullae' in Latin) to sign off on papal documents.
619 - 625	Boniface V	Succeeded after a vacancy of over a year.
619	Working hard to help establish Christianity amongst the pagan Angles and Saxons ofEngland, Boniface V also establishes churches as places of refuge for criminals.
619 - 620	Following growing discontent with theEastern Roman masters of the exarchate ofRavenna, Exarch Eleutherius notes that the emperor's focus is on fighting the Sassanids and takes the opportunity to declare himself emperor. In 620 he marches on Rome, intent on making it his capital, but he is murdered by his own troops.
625 - 638	Honorius I
638 - 640	Despite being elected as the successor to Honorius, Pope Severinus is unable to assume his office thanks to delays by theEastern Roman emperor in confirming his appointment, part of the ongoing disagreements about the divine and human nature of Jesus which have been rumbling on for decades.
640	Severinus	Succession delayed by over 18 months. In office for 2 months.
640 - 642	John IV
640 - c.641	Slavs which include the Croats are invited by Eastern Roman Emperor Heraclius to help him fight the Avars. The Croats receive their present-day lands to settle as a reward but the Slav presence in Dalmatia and Istria leads to the destruction of churches, and Pope John IV, a Dalmatian, is forced to pay large sums of money to free prisoners. The relics of some of the more important Dalmatian saints are interred in Rome.
642 - 649	Theodore I
649 - 653	St Martin I	Not approved by Constantinople. Arrested, died in exile in Crimea.
652 - 653	Pope Martin's election has not been referred to Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II for approval. Constans orders Olympus, exarch ofRavenna, to remove him from office, but Olympus is continually frustrated in his efforts to do this. Instead, he switches his allegiance. Now supporting the pope, he declares himself emperor. In the same year he marches intoSicily, although who he is about to fight, the Roman strategos or the Arabs, is not clear. Instead he is struck down by disease and dies. His replacement is Exarch Theodore, who enters Rome so that his soldiers can drag the pope from the Lateran. Martin is packed onto a ship and sent into exile in Crimea, but it takes a year before the Romans to elect a new pope.
654 - 657	St Eugenius I
657 - 672	St Vitalianus / Vitalian
664	An English priest, Wighard, is selected to be archbishop of Canterbury by the new king ofKent, Egbert I, perhaps with support from Oswiu of Northumbria. He is sent to Rome to receive consecration from Pope Vitalianus, but is killed by bubonic plague before the act can be carried out. In the same year, and also inBritain, the Synod of Whitby sees Oswiu accept the Catholic church of Rome and its representative at Canterbury in preference to the Celtic Church based at Iona, thereby sidelining the latter.
672 - 676	Adeodatus II / Deodatus II
672 - 676	In this period, Adeodatus II grants Venice the right to select its own doge, although the office appears not to be introduced for another two decades.
676 - 678	Domnus (I) / Donus
678 - 682	St Agathon / Agatho	The first of the 'Greek Popes' (678-752).
678 - 690	TheEnglish Bishop Wilfred arrives in[ Frisia](FranceHolland.htm#Offo Kings) and the Anglo-Saxon Christianisation of the [Germanic](BarbarianGermanics.htm#Later Germanics) lands begins, although the first mission is quickly aborted as the fiercely pagan Redbad gains the throne and enmity against the [ Merovingian](FranceFranks.htm#Theuderich III) kings increases. A second attempt in 690 proves much more successful and for the best part of a century churchmen and monks crisscross the Channel or North Sea, intent on spreading the Christian faith amongst their Germanic cousins who border the Merovingian Frankish kingdom. There is special interest in the conversion of the GermanSaxons, whom the English consider their kinsfolk.
680 - 681	The Sixth Council (Constantinople III) is held. The Monotheletism which is supported by Constantinople is condemned and suppressed, despite the pope's failure to win the emperor over to Orthodoxy. The Council heals the growing rift between Rome and the patriarch of Constantinople. The Sixth Council was held during the period of Byzantine influence in Rome, but it did not prevent the Catholic church from condemning the religious practices of the emperor
682 - 684	St Leo II
683	Following the short-lived declaration of independence by the archbishop of Ravenna (about 670-678), the independence of the see ofRavenna is suppressed. Rome's rights over the see are confirmed byEastern Roman Emperor Constantine IV.
683 - 684	During his short papacy, Leo moves the relics of a number of martyrs from the catacombs under Rome into churches, apparently to protect them fromLombard raids. He also dedicates the newly-built churches of St Paul, and St Sebastian & St George.
684 - 685	St Benedict II
685 - 686	John V	FirstEastern Roman pope elected without imperial consent.
686 - 687	Conon	Confirmed byEastern Roman Exarch Theodore II at Ravenna.
687 - 701	St Sergius I	His arrest was ordered but the Italian garrison refused.
687	The rivalry between the two candidates for the papacy - Paschal and Theodorus - erupts into open conflict before a third candidate, Sergius, is elected. Theodorus quickly changes his position to recognise Sergius' better-supported claim, but Paschal offers the exarch of Ravenna, John II Platinus, gold in exchange for military support. The exarch arrives to collect his gold, and does so by looting St Peter's (Old) Basilica, before departing back to Ravenna. Paschal is arrested and confined to a monastery on charges of witchcraft.
687	Paschal	Anti-pope. Confined to a monastery.
687	Theodorus / Theodore	Anti-pope. Recognised Sergius I in 687 and gave way.
695	Sergius ordains Bishop Willibrord as the bishop of the[ Frisians](FranceHolland.htm#Offo Kings). The bishop is aNorthumbrian missionary and a follower of Bishop Wilfred, one of a wave ofEnglish Christians to enter [Germanic](BarbarianGermanics.htm#Later Germanics) lands in this period in order to bring them into the faith. Willibrord becomes the first bishop of Utrecht.
701 - 705	John VI
c.705	Gisulf of Benevento marches on the cities of Arce, Arpino, and Sora, and after taking them ventures as far as Horrea, plundering and burning along the way. With the Campanian region lying devastated behind him, and his forces encamped near Rome, he is persuaded through the receipt of gifts by John VI to withdraw in peace.
705 - 707	John VII
708	Sisinnius	Held office for about three weeks.
708 - 715	Constantine I	Brother? Last pope to visitEastern Roman Constantinople.
715 - 731	St Gregory II
726 - 728	TheLombards take control of the exarchate of Ravenna. As a result,Eastern Roman imperial authority is temporarily unrecognised in Italy, marking a break in Constantinople's control over the papacy.
731 - 741	St Gregory III	Appealed to theFranks for help against the Lombards.
741 - 752	St Zachary / Zacharius	Last pope of the Eastern Roman papacy.
751	The Carolingian mayor of the palace, Pepin III, deposes the last Merovingian king with the blessing of the pope, and takes the throne for himself. Through this despicable act, the pope expects greater Frankish support against the threat of Lombard raids in Italy.
752	The exarchate of Ravenna is recaptured by the Lombards, permanently ending Eastern Roman influence in Italy. Rome is reduced to her ancient territory from Viterbo to Terracina, and from Narni to the mouth of the Tiber. From this point forwards, the papacy looks to the Franks for protection.
Frankish Popes (Christian Church / Roman Catholic Church) AD 752 - 857 Declining Eastern Roman power in the face of multiple threats along its vulnerable land borders led to a general loss of influence in Italy, especially in the face of the increasing power of the Germanic Lombards, who were settling in large areas of the country. Instead, the papacy sought protection from the powerful Franks who by now dominated most of central and western Europe north of the Alps. Within half a century of its enforced break with Constantinople, the papacy recognised Charlemagne as the Frankish emperor of the west, turning its back on the weakening east and heralding the beginning of the Carolingian hegemony of Western Europe.
752	Stephen II	Suffered a stroke shortly after election. 'Un-recognised' in 1962.
752 - 757	Stephen III (II)
754	Rome is delivered from Lombard attack by Pepin III, king of the Franks. This fulfils his role as the ordained protector of the church following Pope Stephen's visit to Paris, during which he re-consecrated the Frankish king. The ex-Eastern Roman exarchate of Ravenna is transferred to the pope in the form of the Papal States. Charles Martel's defeat of the Moors in 732 established the position of the Carolingian Franks as a major power in Europe, and the papacy turned to them for support
755 - 756	Following a brief resurgence by the Lombards in 755, the Carolingians are forced to reconquer them. The ex-Eastern Roman exarchate of Ravenna is handed back to the pope as the Papal States and northern Italy becomes part of the Carolingian empire, although the Papal States are autonomously controlled by the archbishops of Ravenna until 1218.
757 - 767	St Paul I	Brother.
767	During the last days of Paul I, Constantine III, a layman, is selected as his replacement. He is quickly ordained and elevated to the papal office, but in 768 is taken prisoner in the monastery of San Saba and is subsequently killed by Lombards. Philip is the Lombard candidate of choice, but his accession is cut short by the papal chancellor, Christophorus, who then oversees the elevation of Pope Stephen III.
767 - 768	Constantine II	Anti-pope. Killed byLombards.
768	Philip	Anti-pope, for one day.
768 - 772	Stephen IV (III)
772 - 795	Adrian I / Hadrian I	Died aged 95.
774	Desiderius, king of the Lombards, invades the papal territories, and Adrian is forced to call upon Charlemagne, king of the Carolingian Franks, for support and aid. Charlemagne entersItaly and breaks the Lombards. Taking the title of 'king of the Lombards' for himself, Charlemagne confirms the 'Donation of Pepin' of 754, and Rome also gains part of the Lombard duchy of Benevento.
787 - 803	The Seventh Council (Nicaea II) is held. Iconoclasm is condemned under the guidance of Eastern Roman Empress Irene. Adrian also consents to the elevation of the bishopric of Lichfield asEngland briefly pays host to a third archdiocese under the control of Offa of Mercia. It lasts until 799 and is officially terminated in 803, with full authority being returned to Canterbury.
795 - 816	St Leo III
800	Leo III crowns King Charlemagne of the Carolingian Franks as 'Roman Emperor', which gives the papacy a basis for claiming sovereign rights over the later Holy Roman Emperors. Under Charlemagne's leadership, the Franks greatly expanded their borders eastwards, engulfing tribal states, the Bavarian state and its satellite, Khorushka, and much of northern Italy, with the Avars now an eastern neighbour (click or tap on map to view full sized)
816 - 817	Stephen V (VI)	Ordered Rome to swear fidelity to Frankish Emperor Louis I
817 - 824	St Paschal I
824 - 827	Eugenius II / Eugene II	100th (Official) pope.
824	Zinzinnius	Candidate of the plebeians but refused by Lothar I ofFrancia Media.
827	Valentinus / Valentine	Pope for between 30-40 days.
827 - 844	Gregory IV
827	Gregory initially recognises the supremacy of the[ Frankish](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) Roman Emperor, Louis 'the Pious', but the subsequent quarrels between him and his sons, Lothar (later ruler of Middle Francia), Charles 'the Bald' (later to rule in[Western Francia](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks)), and Louis the German (Eastern Francia), changes matters. Gregory sides with Lothar in the hope of providing a peaceful resolution to the wars, but this merely serves to annoy the Frankish bishops. Gregory responds by insisting on the primacy of the office of pope over the emperor, laying the grounds for much future conflict between the Holy Roman Emperors and the papacy.
844 - 847	Sergius II	Consecrated without[ Frankish](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) imperial approval inItaly.
844	John	Proclaimed by the masses but suppressed by the nobility.
846	AnAghlabid fleet sails up the River Tiber and attacks Rome. The residents at the foreign schools -[ Franks](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks),Saxons,Lombards and[ Frisians](FranceHolland.htm#House of Fries) - help defend the fortifications, but further Saracen raids are to come.
847 - 855	St Leo IV	Consecrated without[ Frankish](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) imperial approval inItaly.
849	A further Saracen incursion threatens Rome and other Italian coastal cities, so the pope organises the creation of a defensive league. The league, under the command of Caesar, son of Sergius I ofNaples, sails out to meet the Saracen fleet at the Battle of Ostia. A storm divides the participants halfway through the fight and the Italians return safely to port while the Saracens are scattered. Their remnants are easily picked off or captured afterwards and the successful defence of Italy is celebrated. After the raid, the construction of a high wall begins around the basilicas of St Peter and its vicinity, which is completed in 852. The enclosed area is known as the Leonine City.
855 - 858	Benedict III	The preferred candidate of Lothar II, king of Lotharingia.
855	Hadrian	Initial choice of the masses but refused.
855	Anastasius 'Bibliothecarius'	Anti-pope. Possibly same man as the later Head of Archives.
855	Upon the death of the[ Frankish](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) King Lothar ofItaly, Francia Media is divided between his three sons. Louis II receives Italy and the imperial crown, Charles receives Provence, and Lothar II the remainder - the Rhine corridor from [Burgundy](FranceBurgundy.htm#Frankish Kingdom of Burgundy) up to the North Sea, which is called Lotharingia. Northern Italy falls under the command of Louis II, but the domination of the papacy by the Franks is ended with this fragmentation of their power.
Feudal Popes (Christian Church / Roman Catholic Church) AD 857 - 1049 This was a period in which little central authority existed in Europe. The[ Franks](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) were badly divided, and their former empire was fracturing into regional kingdoms. Italy andIberia were subject to Muslim attacks and domination respectively, and Northern Europe was suffering under the onslaught of increasingly powerful Viking raids. During this uncertain time, after the papacy of Nicholas the Great, the office of pope itself was brought to its lowest point by officials and the nobility using their influence and money to control it. Also during this period, the divisions between the eastern and western churches, Constantinople and Rome respectively, became more concrete. The two played out their growing rivalry in their attempts to Christianise the emerging Bulgarian nation, with Constantinople emerging the victor.
858 - 867	St Nicholas I / Nicholas the Great	Last powerful pope in this period.
864	Louis II,[ Frankish](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) king ofItaly, is constantly challenged by independentLombard dukes and by the Arab Aghlabid invaders of southern Italy, but he supports his brother Lothar II, king of Lotharingia, in a dispute with the pope, and in this year he briefly occupies Rome. He subsequently submits to the pope.
867	The papacy plumbs its lowest depths following the death of Nicholas the Great. His successor is a weak pope who achieves little of positive note and paves the way for the office to fall under the control of various political factions. He is assigned a 'guardian' in the form of Arsenius, bishop of Orte, and the bishop's nephew, Anastasius 'Bibliothecarius' (the anti-pope of 855). It is the latter's brother, Eleutherius, who abducts the pope's wife and daughter from the Lateran Palace in 868, and then murders them. The Lateran Palace was originally owned by the Roman patrician Laterani family, who were accused by Nero of plotting against him. The building was confiscated, and between the fourth and fifteenth centuries it was the pope's official residence
867 - 872	Adrian II / Hadrian II	Last pope to be married.
869 - 870	The Eighth Council (the Fourth of Constantinople) is held. This patches up the filioque and other differences, but is later repudiated by the East, and is the last Ecumenical Council recognised by the West which includes the Eastern Church. At the same council, the conversion of Bulgaria is announced by the Eastern Church.
872 - 882	John VIII	Failed to expel Aghlabids from Italy and paid tribute.
882	Pope John is painted as a somewhat effeminate and weak man. Later critics joke about this, enhancing the claims ever more until the legend of a female Pope Joan is born. According to that legend, she is eventually discovered and her papacy is erased from all records.
882 - 884	Marinus I (Martin II)	Bishop of Caere.
882	Pope Marinus is mistakenly counted as a 'Martin' by the church upon the election of Pope Martin IV (1281). In fact Marinus I and II are both counted as 'Martins', making Martin IV and all subsequent holders of that name advance their numbering by two. Their correct numbering is shown in parenthesis.
884 - 885	St Adrian III / Hadrian III
885 - 891	Stephen VI (V)	Crowned Wido of Spoleto as HRE in 891.
891 - 896	Fromosus / Formosus	Opposed by (later Pope) Sergius III and his supporters.
896	Boniface VI	In office for 15 days.
896 - 897	Stephen VII (VI)	Backed by the Spoleto family. Murdered.
897	Perhaps acting under pressure from the powerful Roman Spoleto family, Pope Stephen convenes the Cadaver Synod, in which the corpse of Pope Fromosus is disinterred, dressed in papal robes, and tried on various charges. He is found guilty of being unworthy of the office, the robes are torn from him, three fingers of his right hand are lopped off (which he would have used for consecrations) and his body thrown into the Tiber. The act causes a scandal and Stephen is imprisoned and strangled. The body of Fromosus, recovered from the water by a monk, is re-interred under Pope Theodore II. The trial of the late and fairly decomposed Pope Fromosuses scandalised Rome and resulted in his accuser, Pope Stephen VII, being imprisoned and murdered
897	Romanus	Deposed by a rival faction in Rome.
897	Sergius III	Elected and immediately exiled by Lambert of Spoleto.
897 - 898	Theodore II	Died after 27 days in office.
898 - 900	John IX	Backed by the Spoleto family.
900 - 903	Benedict IV
903	Leo V	Dethroned by Anti-pope Christopher. Strangled in prison, 904.
903	Leo V is dethroned by Christopher, who seizes the papal office. While this pope is included in some official lists, others claim him as an anti-pope, including the Catholic Encyclopaedia.
903 - 904	Christopher	Anti-pope. Strangled in prison, maybe ordered by Sergius III.
904 - 911	Sergius III	Fathered an illegitimate son (Pope John XI).
904	This is a period in which powerful women of the nobility play politics and influence papal rule. Senator Theophylact, count of Tusculum, and his wife, Senatrix Theodora, are the parents of Marozia. She is reputedly the concubine of Pope Sergius and gives birth to a son (the later Pope John XI). Sergius himself has long been a player (or a pawn) in the politics of the day, attempting to attain the papal office in 891 (in opposition to Pope Fromosus), and 897 (when he had been elected and immediately removed from office), but it is Theophylact who is the power behind the 'throne'. As well as Sergius, he also controls his successors in a period which is later known as the saeculum obscurum, or dark age, referring to the almost total lack of independence of the popes in this century (904-964). These popes are shown in green text. This romantic painting shows the amphitheatre of the Italian city of Tusculum, native territory of the influential counts of Tusculum
911 - 913	Anastasius III	Sometimes claimed as the illegitimate son of Sergius III.
913 - 914	Lando / Landus	In office for about 6 months.
914 - 928	John X	Crowned Tomislav, first king of Croatia.
915	As the latest in a series of conflicts with the Saracens, the forces of the newEastern Roman strategos of Bari, one Nicolaus Picingli, assemble alongside those of various other southern Italian princes in the Christian League. It includes Landulf I of Benevento, John I and Docibilis II of Gaeta, Gregory IV and John II ofNaples, Pope John X, Guaimar II of Salerno, and Alberic I of Spoleto. The allied Byzantine-Lombard army fights and defeats the Fatamids at the Battle of Garigliano, a drawn-out combination of fights and a siege. The Saracens find themselves in a worsening situation and eventually attempt to flee, only to be captured and killed. It is a militarily significant victory in the fight against Islamic advances in Italy.
928	The pope himself is killed through the machinations of Lady Marozia, daughter of Senator Theophylact.
928	Leo VI	In office for just over 7 months.
928 - 931	Stephen VIII (VII)	Elected by Lady Marozia.
931 - 935	John XI	Illegitimate son of Pope Sergius III and Marozia?
936	The power of Lady Marozia, daughter of Senator Theophylact, and her mother over the papal office is succeeded by that of Marozia's son, Alberic II, who elects several popes in succession.
936 - 939	Leo VII	Elected by Alberic II, senator of the Romans.
937	A massive invasion is conducted by theMagyars as they sweep around in a giant circle through central and Southern Europe. They begin from their base in Pannonia to enter into and ravage[ Bavaria](GermanyBavarians.htm#Duchy of Bavaria %28Welfs%29), [ Swabia](GermanySwabia.htm#Dukes of Swabia),Saxony,Franconia, andThuringia within theEast Frankish kingdom. From the Aachen area, the Magyars advance deep into the [West Frankish](FranceFranks.htm#Western Franks) kingdom, the kingdom of Provence, and then the territory of theMiddle (Italian) Franks. They attack Tuscany and the Papal States as far south as Naples, before returning to their adopted Hungarian homeland.
939 - 942	Stephen IX (VIII)	Elected by Alberic II, senator of the Romans.
942 - 946	Marinus II (Martin III)	Elected by Alberic II, senator of the Romans.
946 - 955	Agapetus II	Elected by Alberic II, senator of the Romans.
Agapetus is a surprisingly strong-willed pope for this period. He appeals to the king of theSaxons, Otto I, to end the stranglehold of Senator Alberic II over the papacy. The appeal has little immediate effect, until after Otto becomes Holy Roman Emperor.
955 - 964	John XII	Son of Alberic II. Also Duke Octavianus, prince of Rome.
962 - 963	The Saxon king, Otto, is crowned Roman Emperor by John after he defeats the Magyars. This is in return for John's pledge of allegiance to him in the hope of protection against his enemies, some of whom have recently conquered parts of his territory. Otto guarantees the independence of the Papal States, the first guarantee of its kind, and one which sets a precedence. However, John subsequently conspires against Otto, so the emperor has him accused in an ecclesiastical court in 963. The pope is deposed and replaced, but in his other guise as Octavianus, son ofSenator Alberic II, he is powerful enough to have Otto's representatives mutilated and himself reinstated.
963	Leo VIII	Anti-pope. Layman, elected by Otto IHRE. Fled from John XII.
963 - 964	John XII	Restored by force of arms but died suddenly.
964	Benedict V	Deposed by Leo VIII after just a month. Died 966.
964 - 965	Leo VIII	Restored after deposing Benedict V. Accepted as pope this time.
965 - 973	John XIII	A compromise pope.
965 - 966	John XIII is accepted byHoly Roman Emperor Otto I but not by Rome. A revolt against him sees him temporarily banished from the city between December 965 to November 966. His successor is also supported by Otto, but not by the most powerful family of Rome, the descendants of Senator Theophylact, count of Tusculum.
973 - 974	Benedict VI	Strangled on the order of Consul Crescentius I.
974	Benedict's untimely death is apparently at the hands of Anti-pope Boniface, on the orders ofConsul Crescentius. Boniface flees to theEastern Roman capital at Constantinople following the subsequent public outcry. The Crescentii are able to offer their own replacement, Benedict VII, son of David, who himself is the brother of Consul Alberic II. He is elected by the imperial representative ofHoly Roman Emperor Otto II along with the clergy and people of Rome.
974	Boniface VII	Anti-pope. Excommunicated.
974	Domnus (II) / Donus	A mistaken entry in earlier lists. Domnus is from 'dominus'.
974 - 983	Benedict VII	Nephew ofConsul Alberic II.
983 - 984	John XIV	Murdered. Also the John XIVb incorrectly attributed in 11th century.
984 - 985	Boniface returns to Rome in 984, and murders the unpopular Pope John XIV. He seizes the papal office for a short period before he himself seems to fall victim to assassination in 985. Little is known of this period in Rome, reflecting the political uncertainty in the region following the death ofHoly Roman Emperor Otto II. However, the presence in Rome of Empress Theophanu, mother and regent of Otto III, helps to stabilise the situation during the office of John XV.
984 - 985	Boniface VII	Anti-pope for the second time. Assassinated?
985 - 996	John XV	Died of fever.
996 - 999	Gregory V	Bruno of Kärnthen, son of Otto I of[Bavaria](GermanyBavarians.htm#Duchy of Bavaria %28Welfs%29) &[Carinthia](EasternCarinthia.htm#Duchy of Carinthia).
996 - 997	John XVI	Anti-pope. Captured and mutilated. Died 1013.
996 - 997	John XVII is elected byConsul Crescentius II and the nobles of Rome in opposition of the wishes of the youngHoly Roman Emperor Otto III. The emperor marches on Rome, forcing John to flee, but he is captured, and his nose, ears and tongue are removed. He survives the ordeal and is sent to a monastery for the remainder of his life. Crescentius II, at bay in the Castel Sant'Angelo, is captured after a siege and is hanged from the castle walls. With his papacy secured, Gregory V is the first truly German pope. He is well aware of the pagans along Germany's north-eastern shores, and in this year he sends St Adalbert of Prague into Prussian lands to convert the pagans on the Baltic coast.
999 - 1003	Sylvester II / Silvester II	FirstFrench pope. Re-introduced lostRoman discoveries viaArabs.
1003	The next two popes, both named John, are elected by the consul and patrician of Rome, John Crescentius, son of Crescentius II. Despite Pope John XVI (996-997) being an anti-pope, he is still included in official numbering, the mistake never having been corrected. The third pope elected by John Crescentius, Sergius IV, shows some signs of resisting his domination, possibly by supporting an opposing faction. Pope Sylvester II began the process whereby much of that which had been lost since the fall of the Roman empire, including mathematics and medicine, was now reintroduced from territories which were presently controlled by the Islamic empire
1003 - 1004	John XVII	Died after less than six months in office.
1004 - 1009	John XVIII	Elected by Consul John Crescentius. Abdicated.
1009 - 1012	Sergius IV	Elected by John Crescentius. Died within a week of his patron.
1012 - 1024	Benedict VIII	Born Theophylactus of the counts of Tusculum and Rome.
1012	Gregory VI	Anti-pope. Expelled from Rome.
1012	Benedict is opposed by Gregory VI and a small opposition faction and is forced to flee Rome. He is returned to office byHoly Roman Emperor Henry II, and the latter is subsequently crowned by the grateful pope. Benedict also manages to subdue the powerful Crescentii, leading nobles and consuls in Rome for over a century.
1024 - 1032	John XIX	Brother of Benedict VIII.
1025	The pope condones the elevation of the duchy ofPoland to a kingdom, fifty-nine years after Christianity is introduced to the Poles.
1032 - 1044	Benedict IX	Born Theophylactus, son of Consul Alberic III.
1036 - 1044	Benedict is briefly forced to flee Rome. His entire period of office is reputed to be one involving immorality, adultery, rape and murder, with the_Catholic Encyclopaedia_ calling him a disgrace. In this instance he is restored byHoly Roman Emperor Conrad II. At the end of 1044 he is again forced to leave the city, with his opposition electing Sylvester III (who is sometimes shown as an anti-pope, although he is included in official lists).
1045	Sylvester III	Former bishop of Sabina, and again from 1045 (until at least 1062).
1045	Benedict returns to office three months later, excommunicating Sylvester (who returns to his bishopric and apparently remains there, un-excommunicated, for the rest of his life).
1045	Benedict IX	Second term of office.
1045	Benedict resigns to pursue marriage and, in one of the most outrageous acts of any pope, sells the office to his godfather, Father John Gratian, who assumes office as Gregory VI. However, Benedict almost immediately regrets his decision and usurps Gregory, although the latter continues to be recognised as pope.
1045 - 1046	Gregory VI	Godfather.
1046	Sylvester III	Restated his claim without actively pursuing it.
1046	Holy Roman Emperor Henry III convenes the Council of Sutri in December 1046 to sort out the mess that is the papal office. Benedict and Sylvester are declared to be deposed, and Gregory is asked to resign. The office is granted to Clement II.
1046 - 1047	Clement II
1047	Pope Clement's death allows Benedict to seize the Lateran Palace, although he is forced out by troops of theHoly Roman Emperor in 1048 and is subsequently excommunicated.
1047 - 1048	Benedict IX	Third term of office.
1048 - 1049	Damasus II	In office for less than a month before his death.
Medieval Popes (Christian Church / Roman Catholic Church) AD 1049 - 1304 The selection of Pope Leo IX triggered significant and much-needed reform in the church of Rome. Already a powerful secular ruler in central Italy, Leo was a relative of Conrad II the Salian, and he was elected in a rare display of unity by Conrad's successor, Holy Roman Emperor Henry III and the Roman delegates at an assembly at Worms. Not content with that, he insisted on being freely elected by the clergy and people of Rome, and immediately set about reforming the church, reasserting the requirement for celibacy. Unfortunately, his reforms were derailed by his defeat and capture at the hands of the Normans in southern Italy, and then by the schism of 1054 which fractured the church on an east-west basis. Even so, the church in Rome reached the very height of its power, becoming independent of direct control, capable of declaring wars (the Crusades), and also becoming extremely wealthy.
1049 - 1055	St Leo IX	An important German reformist member of the church.
1051 - 1052	At a synod in Benevento in July 1051, Leo IX beseeches Guaimar of Salerno and Drogo ofApulia to stop Norman incursions onto church lands. However, Drogo is soon assassinated, probably thanks toEastern Roman conspiracy. The following year, on 3 June 1052, Guaimar is also assassinated, by his wife's brothers at the harbour in his own capital. The assassins are eventually captured and put to death by the Normans in a show of their loyalty to Guaimar even after his death.
1053 - 1054	In 1053 the pope is defeated and captured by the count ofApulia. This leads to almost a year of imprisonment in Benevento. The following year, the patriarch of Constantinople, Michael I Cærularius, refuses to acknowledge the primacy of the apostolic successor to Peter. Leo sends a legatine mission under Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople to discuss the church in the troublesome south of Italy, but Humbert promptly excommunicates the patriarch. In return the patriarch excommunicates Humbert. This point is officially recognised as the start of the 'Great Schism' between the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches based in the Constantinople of the Eastern Roman empire and in Rome respectively.
1055 - 1057	Victor II	Another German reformist.
1056 - 1057	The papacy take a turn at governingSpoleto as part of the Papal States.
1057 - 1058	Stephen X (IX)
1058	Pope Benedict X is elected by the count of Tusculum in Rome, but some cardinals suggest that votes have been bought. Stephen's election is generally opposed and a new pope, Nicholas II, is elected at Siena. He proceeds to Rome, declaring Benedict's excommunication at Sutri. Open warfare ensures between the supporters of either pope, and a campaign in the regions around Rome leads to Benedict renouncing his claim of office.
1058 - 1059	Benedict X	Anti-pope, although not officially such until later. Jailed until death.
1059 - 1061	Nicholas II	A highly important reformist.
1061	As one of the pope's reforms of the church, a decree is proclaimed for the election of popes by a college of Cardinals, taking the decision out of the hands of the manipulative counts of Tusculum, consuls ofRome, and other Roman nobles. This is the beginning of the papal heyday, with increasing power and authority being gained by the office. The Catholic Church's college of cardinals (seen here in 1922) was formed in Rome in 1061 to elect the pope, one of the highly important reforms which were enacted by Pope Nicholas II
In the same year, and with fresh-found blessing from Pope Nicholas II as the best way of ridding Sicily of the Muslims (and curbing Constantinople's influence in Italy), Duke Robert Guiscard of Apulia and Calabria invades the island in 1061. He captures Bari, the lastEastern Roman city in Italy, in 1071, and his brother, Roger, takes Palermo onSicily in 1072.
1061 - 1073	Alexander II
1061	The election of Alexander by the new method of convening the College of Cardinals is not recognised by the imperial court in Germany underHoly Roman Emperor Henry IV, which elects Honorius. He marches to Rome, but is unable to dislodge Alexander, and his support is eventually withdrawn. He is excommunicated in 1063, but persists with his claim until his death.
1061 - 1072	Honorius (II)	Anti-pope.
1063	Barisone I of the giudice of Logudoro on Sardinia asks Desiderius of Benevento, abbot of Monte Cassino, to send twelve monks to establish a Benedictine abbey on Sardinia. However, the archdiocese of Pisa is determined to retain its religious monopoly over the island, so the monks are attacked at sea off the coast of the island of Giglio. Four of them are killed and the others return to Monte Cassino. Pope Alexander II excommunicates the Pisans for the assault, and in 1065 two more monks are sent. Barisone gives them Santa Maria di Bonarcado and Sant'Elia di Montesanto.
1066	Alexander meets Duke William ofNormandy and gives his blessing for the Norman invasion ofEngland.
1073 - 1085	St Gregory VII	Another great reformist.
1074	As part of his reformation of the Catholic church, Gregory VII excommunicates married priests in a bid to impose strict clerical celibacy, just one step in a series which makes the Roman church more independent and stronger.
1076 - 1122	A long-running investiture controversy is triggered when the pope challenges the authority of European monarchs to control appointments (investitures) for church officials in their own countries (such as deciding who to appoint as a bishop). It is another step in restoring the power of the church and one that is not resolved until a compromise is reached under the terms of the Concordat of Worms in 1122.
1077 - 1090	Conflict between the rival nobles on Corsica has become such a serious issue that the general population request that overlordship and administration be transferred from the Holy Roman empire to the Papacy. This apparent solution is short-lived, with the papacy transferring control of Corsica to the powerful republic of Pisa in 1090. The long running struggle for supremacy in the Mediterranean between Pisa and Genoa soon spreads from Sardinia to engulf Corsica.
1080	Clement (III)	Anti-pope. Not recognised by any other thanHRE Henry IV.
1080 - 1085	Clement is appointed by an exasperatedHoly Roman Emperor, Henry IV. The emperor has already been excommunicated twice by Gregory VII for opposing his reforms which will involve a loss of established imperial power over the papacy. In 1084, Henry IV enters Rome, forcing Gregory to retire to Castel Sant'Angelo where he is besieged. Clement is installed as pope in his place. Gregory's death in 1085 solves nothing, as Henry IV and Clement have been driven from Rome by Duke Robert Guiscard ofApulia and Calabria. Clement maintains his claim on the papacy during the period in which the office is vacant, in 1085-1086, and during the terms of office of the next three legitimate popes.
1084 - 1100	Clement (III)	Anti-pope for the second time, established in Rome by Henry IV.
1086 - 1088	Victor III	Formerly Desiderius ofBenevento, abbot of Monte Cassino.
1088 - 1099	Urban II
1095 - 1099	During a momentous speech in Clermont-Ferrand in France, Urban II proclaims the First Crusade to reclaim sacred Christian sites from Islamic hands. Starting in 1096, the First Crusade finds a divided Islamic empire governed by the Seljuq Turks, and quickly and forcefully carves a large swathe of territory out of it. However, King Philip I of France takes no part in the Crusade to Outremer, and loses the opportunity to become involved in the creation of the kingdom ofJerusalem.
1099 - 1118	Paschal II
c.1117	Following the death of Henry of[Portugal](IberiaPortugal.htm#County of Burgundy), Paschal II hails his young widow as queen of Portugal for her defence of Coimbra. During his term of office, Paschal also appoints the first bishop of America, better known at this time as Vinland, along with Greenland.
1100 - 1101	Theodoric	Anti-pope. Elected as the replacement for Clement III. Exiled.
1101	Albert / Adalbert / Aleric	Anti-pope. Successor to Theodoric. Exiled to a monastery.
1105 - 1111	Sylvester IV	Anti-pope. Submitted to Paschal once his usefulness was over.
1118 - 1119	Gelasius II
1118 - 1121	Gregory (VIII)	Anti-pope. Elected by the imperial opposition party.
1119 - 1124	Calixtus II
1122 - 1123	The investiture controversy which was triggered in 1076, and which has seen the election of six anti-popes, is finally resolved under the terms of the Concordat of Worms in 1122. TheHoly Roman empire, the main papal opponent in the dispute, is permanently weakened by it. Mostly notably, it removes once and for all the right of the emperor to select the pope. Instead, the College of Cardinals handles this duty, a process which survives to the present. The First Lateran Council is held in the following year, confirming the terms of the Concordat of Worms.
1124	Celestine II	Anti-pope (for one day). Submitted to Honorius II.
1124 - 1130	Honorius II
1130	Anacletus is elected by a select number of cardinals the day following the death of Honorius II. His election is disputed and Innocent is selected instead. However, the latter is forced to flee north of the Alps, and for a time Anacletus is accepted as the official pope, supported by Roger II, duke of Apulia and Calabria and count of Sicily. Innocent eventually gains popular support in Europe but is only able to claim his office when Anacletus dies in 1138. By this time Roger has already been crowned king of Sicily.
1130 - 1138	Anacletus II	Anti-pope. Not canonically elected.
1130 - 1143	Innocent II	Effectively anti-pope himself during Anacletus' lifetime.
1133	Innocent II divides Sardinia between the two sees of Genoa (newly created) and Pisa. Naturally this creates a further excuse for warfare between the two great rivals, but on the island, only Comita of Gallura supports the Genoese.
1138	Victor IV	Anti-pope. Successor to Anacletus. Submitted to Innocent III.
1139	The Second Lateran Council is held by Innocent II. His ardent enemy, Roger II, king of Sicily, is excommunicated, and after a period of strife within the church and multiple anti-popes, peace is at last restored. More conflict with Roger II follows during which Benevento becomes an outlying possession of the Papal States.
1143 - 1144	Celestine II	In office for five months and thirteen days before his death.
1144	Pope Celestine II avoids the thorny issue of the recently declared independence of [ Portugal](IberiaPortugal.htm#Kingdom of Burgundy) by recognising its first king, Alfonso, as Dux Portugallensis. The issue of just how to recognise the de facto independence of Portugal was a tricky one for the papal office, as it could not be seen to be offending Spanish sensibilities
1144 - 1145	Lucius II	Died of injuries sustained in the 'Battle of the Forum'.
1144	Pope Lucius' dealings with Roger II, duke ofApulia and Calabria, lead to a peace of sorts between the Papal States and the Normans in southern Italy, but supply the Roman Senate with the opportunity to reassert its ancient rights. A republic is re-established in Rome which seeks to control the Papal States, although the nobility remain neutral in the matter. A precedent has already been established during the pontificate of Innocent II, who had enjoyed virtually no temporal power at all. The Commune of Rome is established. Lucius attempts to force the issue and the Forum is used as a battlefield in which the pope receives a fatal injury. His successor is unable to enter Rome for much of his term in office.
1145 - 1153	Eugenius III / Eugene III	Under the strong influence of Bernard of Clairvaux.
1147 - 1149	The Second Crusade takes place inOutremer. When Edessa falls to the Saracens in 1145, Eugenius calls upon Louis VII ofFrance to play his part in defending the Holy Land. The king embarks forJerusalem in 1147.
1153 - 1154	Anastasius IV	A peacemaker in relations with HRE Frederick I Barbarossa.
1154 - 1159	Adrian IV / Hadrian IV	The only English pope, Nicholas Breakspear.
1155	Pope Adrian issues the Laudabiliter, a papal bull which apparently issues King Henry II Plantagenet with the authority to invade and secureIreland. The papal intent is that the Georgian church reforms can be enforced there. In the event, Ireland is indeed invaded but successive English kings site Adrian's successor, Alexander III, as the issuer of their title and authority in Ireland.
1159 - 1181	Alexander III	Laid the foundation stone for Notre Dame de Paris.
1159	A minority of the cardinals elect a cardinal priest named Octavian as pope, restarting a series of anti-popes after twenty years of unity within the church. The anti-popes are supported by the Holy Roman Emperor, but after 1177 he finally recognises Alexander III.
1159	Victor IV	Anti-pope. Supported by HRE Frederick I Barbarossa.
1164 - 1168	Paschal III	Anti-pope. Successor to Victor IV. Never recognised.
1167	Almost as soon as it is founded, the [Lombard League](ItalyKingdom.htm#Lombard League) of northern Italy becomes the 'last man standing' in the fight against Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I. His defeat of Pope Alexander III at the Battle of Monte Porzio knocks the Papal States out of the conflict, but the Pope continues to support the Lombard League quite heavily.
1168	Calixtus (III)	Anti-pope. Successor to Paschal III. Submitted to Alexander III.
1177	Venice offers hospitality to Pope Alexander III and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, and the republic arbitrates the peace between them following Barbarossa's defeat at Legnano the year before (29 May 1176). Barbarossa renounces his claim to Roman territory and recognises the pope as the city's sovereign prince on 1 August 1177.
1179	The Third Lateran Council of the Catholic church calls a crusade against Cathar heretics in Toulouse. Pope Alexander III also recognises Alfonso I as king of an independent[Portugal](IberiaPortugal.htm#Kingdom of Burgundy).
1179 - 1180	Innocent (III)	Anti-pope. Elected by opponents of Alexander III but imprisoned.
1181 - 1185	Lucius III	Spent much of pontificate in exile at Velletri, Anagni & Verona.
1185 - 1187	Urban III	Continued papal exile at Verona.
1187	Gregory VIII	In office for less than two months.
1187	Learning of the fall of the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem to the Ayyubid sultan, Saladin, Gregory calls for a Third Crusade to regain the holy city. However, his brief stay in office means that he is unable to do any more than initiate the call to arms.
1187 - 1191	Clement III
1189 - 1192	Continuing Pope Gregory's work in this sphere at least, Clement pursues Henry II of England and Philip II of France to take part in the Third Crusade in Outremer, which also sees [Cyprus](GreeceCyprus.htm#Christian Kingdom) conquered from the Eastern Roman empire.
1191	The number of senatores (senators) in Rome is reduced to one in a thorough reformation of the process of governing the city. From this point on, civil government in Rome is handled by the senators rather than the nobility or the papacy.
1191 - 1198	Celestine III
1198 - 1216	Innocent III
1198 - 1222	The Papal States resume control ofSpoleto, this time for a longer period, under this powerful and influential pope.
1200	In the Hospital of the Holy Ghost in Sassia in Rome, Innocent III officially establishes the Roman Catholic religious order known as the Order of the Holy Ghost, founded by Guy de Montpellier in Provence for running hospitals throughout Europe. One of the Order's buildings, the Church of the Holy Ghost in Tallinn, Estonia, survives to this day.
1202 - 1204	The Fourth Crusade, decreed by the pope himself, goes badly wrong when Crusaders in the employ of Venice capture Constantinople, causing the first break in the line of Eastern Roman (Byzantine) emperors. A somewhat fragile Latin kingdom is created there instead.
1206	The pope recognises the Danish claim to the overlordship of NorthEstonia and the islands. He also quashes the election of Reginald to the position of archbishop of Canterbury in England.
1209 - 1229	Innocent III announces a crusade against the Albigensian Cathar and Vaudois 'heresy' in the Languedoc region of southern France. In 1226, Louis VIII ofFrance joins in, invading the Languedoc and campaigning against the towns and lords who support the Albigensians. The Albigensian Crusade witnessed outright warfare and genocidal levels of murder in southern France as opposing theologies clashed, with brutal force being shown by the eventual victors
1215	The Fourth Lateran Council is held, the most important of the Middle Ages. One of the decisions reached is that Jews should no longer be given access to public office where Christians might be subordinate to them.
1216 - 1227	Honorius III
1216 - 1223	During his term of office, Honorius sanctions the creation of the Dominican order (1216) and the Franciscans (1223), and approves the Rule of St Dominic (1216) and that of St Francis (1223).
1217 - 1221	The Fifth Crusade (First Expedition) is decreed by Honorius in order to recover Outremer and the Holy Land. The pope also initiates a spiritual reform of the entire church.
1227 - 1241	Gregory IX	Nephew of Pope Innocent III (1198-1216).
1228 - 1229	When the Fifth Crusade (Second Expedition) is decreed, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II is excommunicated both for not taking part and then for going and negotiating the possession of[Jerusalem](../KingListsMiddEast/CanaanJerusalem.htm#Second Kingdom) (until 1244). To rub salt into the wound, Pope Gregory IX invades his territories while he is away, and it is probably this invasion which regains control ofSpoleto for the Papal States. Relations between the pope and the emperor steadily decline thereafter, to the point where they are constantly at war with one another.
1231	Gregory establishes the Papal Inquisition to deal with what he sees as a serious problem of heresy, although he does not condone the use of torture.
1232	The pope endorses the Northern Crusades to Christianise the Baltic peoples, including the[Pomeranians](EasternPomerania.htm#Duchy of Pomerania),Prussians,Lithuanians,Couronians,Samogitians,Lats,Estonians,Osilians, and Finns. In this year he asks the Order of the Knights of the Sword to aid the semi-Christianised Finns in their fight against the OrthodoxRus of the Novgorod republic.
1234	The Third Council of Arles opposes the Albigensian heresy in southern France. This had reared its head from 1143 under the name of Catharism, a sect with the view that the Earthly life of a man is merely a prelude to his true life in the hereafter, during which he must renounce any connection with power and pursue a path of love. There are variants of Cathar (meaning 'pure one') with slightly differing methodologies, and the Catholic church is determined to stamp it out.
1238	North Estonia is returned to theDanes under the terms of the Treaty of Stensby, which is mediated by the pope.
1241	Celestine IV	In office for 17 days, and died of age and the stress of the election.
1241 - 1243	The papal office remains vacant while the Cardinals endlessly debate which candidate to select. One camp prefers a hard line to be taken with the ongoing problem of Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and his seizure of parts of the Papal States, while another camp prefers a more moderate line. The moderates win with Innocent IV, but negotiations with Frederick soon stall.
1243 - 1254	Innocent IV
1243	The papal legate, William of Modena, oversees the creation of the three dioceses of Culm, Ermland, and Pomerania within the recently conquered Prussian territories which are now governed by the Teutonic Knights.
1245	Due to the agents of the Holy Roman Emperor acting in the Papal States, Innocent is forced to leave Rome in disguise and make his way to Lyon in France (via Savoy, thanks to the influence of the future Count Philip I who is granted the archbishopric of Lyon as a result). Pope Innocent gathers together all the bishops who can make their way there and holds the First Council of Lyon. The emperor is excommunicated (again) and declared deposed, relieving his subjects of their allegiance to him. This sends shockwaves throughout Europe, and Innocent's life is only spared from retribution by the death of the emperor in 1250.
1248 - 1254	The Sixth Crusade takes place inOutremer, under the leadership of St Louis IX of France. He invades Ayyubid Egypt in 1249 and occupies Damietta while the Ayyubids are seriously disorganised.
1254 - 1261	Alexander IV	Nephew of Pope Gregory IX (1227-1241).
1261 - 1265	Urban IV
1263	The Fourth Council of Arles condemns the doctrines of the twelfth century monk and mystic known as Joachim of Fiore. He had been responsible for founding the monastic order of San Giovanni in Fiore (modern Jure Vetere).
1265 - 1269	Clement IV	A widowed father of two daughters before taking orders.
1269 - 1271	Clement's death is something of a shock, and the papal office remains vacant for three years while the Cardinals fail to agree on a suitable successor. It quickly becomes the longest-running papal election process in history.
1270	The Seventh Crusade under St Louis IX of France gets no further than Tunisia, without papal blessing this time.
1271 - 1276	Gregory X
1272	The new king of Albania, Charles of Anjou, finds his situation to be uncomfortable in light of scheming by Eastern Roman Emperor Michael VIII of Constantinople, and a Michael-influenced order byPope Gregory X for Charles to cease his building-up of Albania's Angevin strength.
1274	As soon as Gregory takes office, having spent time on Crusade with King Edward I of England, he convenes the Second Council of Lyon. The council is called so that the pope can attempt to act upon a pledge made by Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palæologus to reunite the eastern and western churches. Despite the apparent intention of both sides to agree to reunification, the Byzantine people are staunchly against it, and any agreement is soon abolished by the son of Michael VIII. Pope Gregory X himself dies following the council, as he is travelling back from Lyon to Rome, removing another supporter from the cause. St Bonaventure was present at the first four sessions of the Second Council of Lyon but he died in the town on 15 July 1274, while the council itself agreed on the reunification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches, although any hope of that actually taking place would soon be abandoned
1276	Innocent V	In office for 5 months.
1276	Adrian V	Nephew of Pope Innocent IV. In office for just over a month.
1276	Upon the death of Adrian, his successor is elected as John XXI rather than John XX. He makes this choice in order to correct a perceived mistake in the numbering for previous popes of the same name which had occurred in the eleventh century, following the papacy of John XIX. The entry for Pope John XIV (983-984) in the Liber Pontificalis had been misread to produce a Pope John XIV and a John XIVb. In skipping the use of the name John XX, Pope John XXI assumes the mistake in numbering has been corrected. This beautifully-penned and illustrated medieval version of the Liber Pontificalis covers the lives of the popes from St Peter to the fifteenth century
1276 - 1277	John XXI	The only[ Portuguese](IberiaPortugal.htm#Kingdom of Burgundy) pope. In office for about 8 months.
1277 - 1280	Nicholas III	Formerly Cardinal Giovanni Gaetano Orsini.
1281	Charles of Anjou caps his recent military and political successes by appointing aFrench pope in the form of Martin IV. This dangerous period of French domination in papal affairs will soon lead to the '[Great Schism](#Great Schism)'. Eastern Roman Emperor Michael VIII is excommunicated (largely irrelevant as he follows the Orthodox church) and is in difficulties on the battlefield. He sends a large skirmishing force to Berat which manages to capture Charles' commander - Hugh de Scully - causing the Angevin forces to be routed and largely dispersed.Albanian nobles largely side with Michael to secure a more stable kingdom ofAlbania.
1281 - 1285	Martin IV (II)	(For numbering of Pope Martin, see note on Pope Marinus I in 882).
1285 - 1288	Honorius IV
1288 - 1292	Nicholas IV	Elected after a ten month vacancy.
1292 - 1294	The office is vacant during the last papal election not to be convened in a papal conclave, where the Cardinals are locked into a room until they make a selection. Unfortunately their selection abdicates just five months into his term of office. Once Boniface VIII has been selected as a replacement, the question of appointing a prince-bishop to the similarly empty seat of Liège can be tackled.
1294	St Celestine V	In office for 5 months. Abdicated. Died 1296.
1294 - 1303	Boniface VIII	Famous for his feuds with Dante and King Philip ofFrance.
1295 - 1296	Despite abdicating to return to his beloved life of solitude, former Pope Celestine V is not allowed any peace. He is sent for by Pope Boniface VIII, and, after trying to escape, is captured and imprisoned. Ten months later, Celestine dies, and the cause may not be the dank air of the prison. Historians believe he may be murdered by Boniface, and his skull bears a hole that seems suspicious. Boniface goes on to make the most exaggerated claims for the mediaeval papacy, but he is humiliated by Philip the Fair ofFrance when the king urges the canonisation of Celestine.
1297	Shortly after taking office, Boniface VIII sweeps all existing agreements and treaties aside with his proclamation of a 'Kingdom ofSardinia and Corsica' that will, naturally, be a fief of the papacy itself. Boniface offers the fief to James II of Aragon along with papal support should he wish to abandon his territory onSicily in exchange for invading Pisan-supported Sardinia. James does not immediately take up the offer.
1303	The culmination of his ongoing feud with Philip the Fair ofFrance sees Boniface captured and tortured at the hands of the king. His execution is almost ordered, but instead he is released, and dies shortly afterwards, partly from kidney stones but perhaps also partly through shock.
1303 - 1304	Benedict XI	Perhaps murdered by the minister of Philip ofFrance, but unproven.
Great Schism Popes (Roman Catholic Church) AD 1304 - 1449 The Great Schism was made up of two periods in which the Catholic Church was badly disrupted by dual claims to the office (and even triple claims). The first period, sometimes known as the Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377), saw the papacy moved to Avignon, where it fell under the domineering control of the kings of France. The second period, beginning in 1378, was known as the Western Schism. This saw the papacy restored to Rome and the subsequent election of a series of anti-popes at Avignon, all of whom fell under the domination of the French kings. The Great Schism was finally healed between 1414-1418 when the three popes who claimed office by this time all voluntarily resigned or were removed from office and a single successor selected. However, this did not prevent the further selection of a short-lived line of weak anti-popes at Avignon, until the last of the anti-popes resigned in 1449.
1305 - 1314	Clement V	At Avignon. AFrenchman who showed no sign of independence.
1307	On Friday 13 October Philip the Fair of France leads the destruction of the Knights Templar in that country, under agreement with the French Pope installed at Avignon. The order's riches are confiscated and the grand master of the Temple, Jacques Molay, is arrested and tortured (and burned at the stake in 1314).
1309 - 1377	After residing at Poitiers for the first four years of his papacy, Clement moves the papacy to an enclave in Avignon (now inFrance but at this time part of the lands of Frederick I, king ofSicily), in a period known as the Babylonian Captivity.
1311 - 1312	The Council of Vienna is held which refuses to convict the Knights Templar of heresy. The pope orders them abolished anyway.
1314 - 1316	The death of Clement V leads to two years in which the papal office is vacant. The Cardinals are split into two equally balanced factions which refuse to compromise. It takes Philip V ofFrance to organise a conclave in Lyon which finally selects a successor.
1316 - 1334	John XXII	At Avignon.
1314	Edward II's defeat at Bannockburn by the Scottish under Robert the Bruce sees the start of a period in which the certainty of Scottish independence from England become more and more established. The drawing up of the Declaration of Arbroath in 1320 involves Pope John XXII in negotiations.
1320 - 1322	In an escalation of the continuing conflict between Guelfs and Ghibellines in Italy, Pope John XXII ensures that Matteo, lord of[Milan](ItalyKingdom.htm#Lords of Milan), is charged with necromancy for attempted papicide. Matteo refuses to appear before the papal court and is found guilty in his absence in 1321. The charge spreads to Galeazzo, Matteo's son, and in 1322 the papal legate, Cardinal Bertrand du Poujet, proclaims a holy crusade against the Visconti. With the stakes escalating further, Matteo stands aside in favour of his son (and dies a month later).
1328	John XXII has already opposed Louis IV of [ Bavaria](GermanyBavarians.htm#Duchy of Bavaria %28Wittelsbachs%29) asHoly Roman Emperor, so the Bavarian king invades [Italy](ItalyKingdom.htm#Lords of Milan) and sets up Nicholas V as a short-lived anti-pope. Fortunately, the successor of Pope John is much more conciliatory.
1328 - 1330	Nicholas (V)	Anti-pope at Rome. The last to be elected by theHRE (Louis IV).
1331 - 1335	Azzone, lord of [ Milan](ItalyKingdom.htm#Lords of Milan), allies himself with Theodore I, marquess of Montferrat. Their common enemy is Robert of Anjou, king ofNaples, and Azzone is keen to reclaim his possessions in north-western Italy. The following year, he takes Bergamo and Pizzighettone. Further conquests in 1335 include Crema, Cremona, Lodi, and Vercelli, along with other territories in Lombardy that had ceded control to the Papal States.
1334 - 1342	Benedict XII	At Avignon. A reforming pope who attempted to curb monasteries.
1342 - 1352	Clement VI	At Avignon.
1347 - 1350	The Black Death rips through Europe, killing about a third of its population. This has a major effect on the economy and on working practices, especially in England where the decimated peasant workforce is now able to demand freedom and pay for its services. The Jews are popularly blamed for the epidemic, but Clement issues two papal bulls and urges the clergy to protect Jews.
1352 - 1362	Innocent VI	At Avignon.
1362 - 1370	Urban V	At Avignon. briefly returned to Rome.
1371 - 1372	With Urban V leaving Rome again shortly before his death, having failed to fully establish himself in the city, a second period of banderesi government takes control.
1370 - 1378	Gregory XI	At Rome. 200th (Official) pope.
1377	Gregory XI ends the 'Babylonian Captivity' by restoring the papacy to its traditional seat in Rome. His death the following year leads to the Roman mob breaking into the College of Cardinals to insist on the election of an Italian pontiff. Pope Gregory XI ended the 'Babylonian Captivity' by bringing the papacy back to Rome from its temporary home at Avignon where it had been dominated by the kings of France
1378 - 1389	Urban VI	At Rome. The first Italian pope of this period.
1378	Poor relations between Urban VI and various of the Cardinals creates the Western Schism, in the second of the two periods known overall as the Great Schism. The Cardinals are egged on by theFrench king to return to Avignon and elect another French pope, which they do, selecting Clement VII. He is forced to retire permanently to Avignon after failing to establish himself in [Italy](ItalyKingdom.htm#Lords of Milan), and becomes dependant on the French court. Unlike the popes of the Babylon Captivity, he and his successors are not regarded by later ages as legitimate popes, but at the time the fact that two popes have been created by the same Cardinals leads to much confusion and turmoil amongst the faithful.
1378 - 1394	Clement (VII)	Anti-pope at Avignon. Elected in opposition to Urban VI.
1389 - 1404	Boniface IX	At Rome.
1394 - 1423	Benedict (XIII)	Anti-pope at Avignon until 1403. Successor to Clement.
1398	The French church withdraws its support of the Avignon papacy, weakening it. Avignon is besieged by Geoffrey Boucicaut, the start of a five year siege, but Benedict XIII manages to escape in 1403.
1404 - 1406	Innocent VII	At Rome.
1406 - 1415	Gregory XII	At Rome. Elected on condition he would renounce if Benedict did.
1409	Talks stall between the anti-pope, Benedict, and Pope Gregory to resolve the dual-papacy. The Council of Pisa, designed to sort out the situation, instead witnesses a third pope being elected. Alexander V, who is based at Pisa (the Pisa-based popes are shown in green text), is selected for a seat which is presumed to be vacant. The status of these popes as anti-popes has not so far been confirmed by the Catholic Church, but while the numbering of Alexander in the general sequence has been included, that of John has not.
1409 - 1410	Alexander V	Anti-pope at Pisa.
1410 - 1415	John (XXIII)	Anti-pope at Pisa. Resigned but excommunicated.
1414 - 1418	The Council of Constance is called by Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. Gregory XII and John XXIII both resign voluntarily (initially, although John flees and has to be excommunicated), and Benedict XIII is also excommunicated when he refuses entirely. A papal interregnum in 1415-1417 resolves the Great Schism, but the principle of the council is a threat to papal authority.
1417 - 1431	Martin V (III)	The first post-Great Schism pope. A Colonna of Alba.
1418	Due to danger from marauding bands, the canons of the church of St Mary of Lirey in France hand over the Shroud of Turin to Humbert of Villersexel, count de la Roche, for safe-keeping. He keeps it in his castle of Montfort near Montbard. Later it is kept at St Hippolyte sur Doubs, in the chapel called des Buessarts. According to seventeenth century chroniclers, annual expositions of the shroud are held at this time in a meadow on the banks of the river Doubs called the Pré du Seigneur.
1420	One of Pope Martin's most notable acts is to issue a bull excommunicating Hussites and Wycliffites, along with other heretics in[ Bohemia](EasternBohemia.htm#House of Luxembourg). He effectively initiates the Hussite Wars. He also bans the sale of Christian slaves to non-Christian owners.
1423 - 1429	Clement (VIII)	Anti-pope at Avignon. Weak successor to Benedict (XIII).
1430 - 1437	Benedict (XIV)	Anti-pope at Avignon. Weak successor. Voluntarily abdicated.
1431 - 1447	Eugenius IV / Eugene IV	Venetian Cardinal Priest of Basilica di Santa Maria in Trastevere.
1431 - 1445	With Pope Martin V having called for the Council of Basel a few weeks before his death, the council is confirmed and convened by Eugenius. Two major problems are discussed: the question of papal supremacy and the Hussite heresy, the latter being followers of the [Bohemian](EasternBohemia.htm#House of Luxembourg) religious reformer, Jan Hus. Despite intending to foster the reintegration of the eastern Orthodox church, the council instead descends into bickering and loss of prestige, before it excommunicates the pope himself and proposes a fresh anti-pope in Felix V.
1434	The old senatorial arrangement in Rome is finally abandoned. The papacy assumes what is effectively direct control of the city's governance. Day-to-day administrative duties are delegated mostly to the College of Cardinals and various papal departments. This arrangement manages to survive until the invasion of [French](FranceFranks.htm#First Republic) General Napoleon Bonaparte at the end of the eighteenth century.
1439 - 1449	Felix V	Anti-pope. Formerly Duke Amadeus VIII of Savoy (1416-1434).
1449	Abdicating voluntarily, Felix is the last anti-pope in the traditional sense. The church faces other opposition down the years, but none who can claim a rival papacy. Nicholas V is now sole, unopposed pope during the early years of the Renaissance.
Renaissance Popes (Roman Catholic Church) AD 1449 - 1513 With the [Great Schism](#Great Schism) firmly behind it, and cultural changes beginning to arrive in [Italy](ItalyKingdom.htm#Duchy of Milan), soon to spread around Europe, Pope Nicholas V was the first to accept the spirit of the Renaissance. After reinforcing Rome's fortifications, he set about rebuilding the city so that it was worthy of its role as the capital of the world's Christianity. The Borgo and Vatican districts were rebuilt, and work was begun on taking down the old St Peter's Basilica in preparation for a new version, laying down the roots for the surroundings of the modern papacy. Nicholas also founded a library containing approximately nine thousand volumes, and was a man of intense learning himself, a true herald of the Renaissance.
1447 - 1455	Nicholas V	The Renaissance begins in this period.
1447	Nicholas V is Genoese, so as an attempt to bring stability to Corsica he grants all of his personal rights and papal holdings there to Genoa. However, the south of the island remains dominated by the counts of Cinarca, who are nominally subservient to Aragon, and the Terra di Comune, which is effectively controlled by Galeazzo da Campo Fregoso.
1453	Constantinople, capital and heart of the fading Eastern Roman empire, is captured by Mahomet II of the Ottoman empire, and Greece becomes an Ottoman province. The loss is viewed as a disaster for the Christian world, despite Rome's frequent differences with the Orthodox church in Constantinople over the centuries, and with its emperors. The fall of Constantinople not only ended the last vestiges of the Roman empire, now dating back almost two millennia in its many forms, but it also opened up south-eastern Europe to the Ottoman Turks
In the same year, Margaret de Charny, widow of Humbert of Villersexel, count de la Roche, receives the castle of Varambon and revenues from the estate of Miribel near Lyon for 'valuable services' to Duke Louis ofSavoy. These services are believed to be the bequest of the Shroud of Turin, which remains with the Savoyard dukes, and their descendant kings of firstSavoy and then all ofItaly until the ending of the monarchy in 1946. For her pains, Margaret de Charny is excommunicated in 1457 for not returning the shroud to the canons of Lirey. The canons are compensated for their loss, and the excommunication is lifted in 1459.
1455 - 1458	Calixtus III	AnAragonese cardinal elected as a compromise pope.
1455	During his short term of office, Calixtus is notable for raising two of his nephews to cardinals. One of these, Roderic de Borgia, will soon become infamous for his term of office as Pope Alexander VI.
1458 - 1464	Pius II	Formerly prince-bishop ofWarmia.
1464	Pius II is notable for writing Commentaries, the only autobiography by a reigning pope. The work is first published in 1584 by a distant relative, Cardinal Francesco Bandini Piccolomini.
1464 - 1471	Paul II	Venetian nephew of Pope Eugenius IV.
1471 - 1484	Sixtus IV
1481 - 1484	Venice is at war against Ferrara at the insistence of Sixtus IV. Rovigo and Polesine are annexed, but the pope is under pressure on all sides to end the hostilities that he has started, so in 1483 he places Venice under interdict.
1483	The first mass is held in the Sistine Chapel, built as a restoration of the old Cappella Magna between 1477-1480 by Sixtus, and named after him as the official residence of the pope in Vatican City. Today it is best known for being the place in which papal conclaves are held.
1484 - 1492	Innocent VIII
1484	During what becomes known as the Little Ice Age in Europe, Innocent VIII instigates harsh measures against witches and warlocks. It is his response to freezing weather, lost crops, general starvation, and intense hardship in Central Europe which lead to accusations of witchery from amongst the sufferers. He orders witches to be persecuted. This abrupt climate change may in part (but clearly not exclusively) be caused by the later mass depopulation ofNative Americans by European colonists.
1492 - 1503	Alexander VI Borgia	Aragonese. Formerly bishop of Urgel, joint sovereign of [Andorra](FranceAndorra.htm#Roderic de Borja).
1492	The election of Rodrigo Borgia (Roderic de Borja) to the papacy begins one of the lowest points in the history of the office. Borgia's name becomes a by-word for debauchery, bribery, nepotism, and scandal, and this period severely weakens the moral authority of the Roman Catholic church. He shows few scruples about enriching members of his family at the expense of the church, and fathers at least four children by his married mistress, Vannoza dei Cattani. Two of those, Cesare Borgia (Archbishop of Valencia) and Lucrezia Borgia, became almost as infamous as their father for their ruthlessness and avariciousness.
1495	An alliance is formed between Naples, the pope, [ Milan](../KingListsEurope/ItalyKingdom.htm#Duchy of Milan), Venice, and the Emperor in order to defend Italy from Charles VIII of France.
1503	Pius III	A compromise pope. In office for 28 days.
1503 - 1513	Julius II	Nephew of Pope Sixtus IV.
1506 - 1512	Construction begins in 1506 of the Late Renaissance Basilica of St Peter in Rome, which still stands today at the centre of Vatican City. In 1508, Pope Julius commissions the artist Michelangelo to paint the vast ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, work which takes him until 1512 and is considered to be his greatest effort. He himself sees it as little more than serving the pope's quest for grandeur (memorably shown in the 1965 feature film, The Agony and the Ecstasy).
1508 - 1509	The League of Cambrai is formed withFrance, Castile, Hungary, the Papal States, the Holy Roman empire, and Ferrara against Venice. Venice is defeated at Agnadello, with the loss of all the Dry Land Dominion - essentially its territories in [Italy](ItalyKingdom.htm#Duchy of Milan).
1512	The archbishopric of Warmia becomes exempt, removing it from regional Polish control and placing it under the direct jurisdiction of the pope.
1512 - 1517	Julius II recovers by combat all of the Papal States. The Fifth Lateran Council is held and, at its end, in 1517, German theologian Martin Luther publishes his '95 theses', sparking the Protestant Reformation.
Early Modern Popes (Roman Catholic Church) AD 1513 - 1700 With the Late Renaissance period witnessing the completion of the Basilica of St Peter in Rome, there was change in the air for the start of the early modern age in Europe. The Protestant Reformation emphasised the removal of the overly elaborate ceremony of the Catholic rite and the imperial structure of the Catholic church in favour of a simple, unadorned worship (in modern terms, a 'People's Church'). It swept through Northern Europe following Martin Luther's proclamation of his '95 theses' in 1517. The Protestants, or 'protesters' created new churches governed by new church organisations, most notably those of the Lutherans in Germany and the northern Baltics, and the Anglican Church in Britain (not necessary Protestant at first, it was more of a moderated Catholicism, finding something of a middle way between the two extremes). The Roman church suffered a tremendous loss of authority in the north, but soon struck back with the Counter-Reformation, which regained some territory, especially in southern and central areas of Germany, mostly through warfare.
1513 - 1522	Leo X Medici	The Reformation begins at this time.
1521	Largely due to Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, the Edict of Worms on 25 May condemns Protestant Reformation leader Martin Luther as an outlaw and heretic. Duke Frederick III of Saxe-Thuringen protects Luther at his castle of Wartburg. Leo X also grants Henry VIII of England the title 'Defender of the Faith' for a tract defending Catholicism.
1522 - 1523	Adrian VI	In office for 18 months.
1523 - 1534	Clement VII	Cousin of Pope Leo X.
1525	The French are defeated at the Battle of Pavia, leaving Holy Roman Emperor Charles V dominant in Italy. Newly-installed Duke Francesco Sforza of[ Milan](../KingListsEurope/ItalyKingdom.htm#Duchy of Milan) joins the League of Cognac against the emperor along with Florence, France, the Pope, andVenice. This backfires when the emperor takes military action against Milan.
1526	Sweden's part in the Reformation is to remove its church organisation from the control of Rome. The Church of Sweden is founded by Gustav Vasa, with the king as its head. Over the next few years the king oversees the appointment of bishops and the country's archbishop. On a more pragmatic level, the move is ideal for solving Gustav's budget crisis, with the Crown heavily in debt following the costly wars to remove Danish dominance.
1527	Pope Clement has sided with France to ward off domination of the papacy by the Holy Roman empire. With the French having been defeated in [Italy](ItalyKingdom.htm#Duchy of Milan), and the Imperial/Spanish troops remaining unpaid, they rebel and sack Rome. Amongst the destruction wrought on the city, the tombs of Sixtus IV and Julius II are destroyed. In the struggle for political domination in Europe the pope sided with France, with the result that the Habsburg army sacked Rome in 1527, as painted by Johannes Lingelbach
1534	The English Reformation had gained political support when Henry VIII of England wanted his marriage to Catherine of Aragon annulled. Under pressure from Catherine's nephew, Emperor Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, the annulment is refused by Clement VII, the latest point in an ongoing conflict of authority between England and Rome. Henry, although theologically a Catholic, decides to become Supreme Head of the Church of England to ensure the annulment of his marriage.
1534 - 1550	Paul III	Triggered the Catholic fightback against Protestantism.
1535 - 1536	The first English translation of the entire Bible is printed, with translations by Tyndale and Coverdale. In 1536, the dissolution of the monasteries begins in England, and Catholic decorations in churches are removed or whitewashed over.
1545	The duchy of Parma is created out of a portion of territory that had belonged to the duchy of Milan - an area to the south of the River Po that is centred around the city of Parma. The new duchy is for Pope Paul III's illegitimate son, Pier Luigi Farnese. As the duchy's overlord, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V soon invests his own son with the title.
1545 - 1563	The Council of Trent is convened, being the nineteenth Ecumenical Council. The church changes its view on the existence of a soul in women, now allowing for such a possibility. Previously the claim, 'mulier tota in utero', - the woman is totally compromised within her uterus - had made it clear what the role of women (including the wives of kings) should be; to ensure the existence of descendants. The council also serves to establish the Counter-Reformation (or Catholic Reformation), Rome's reply to the Protestant Reformation.
1547 - 1553	Protestantism is established for the first time in England (more as a simplified form of Catholicism than the Protestantism practised in Northern Europe), and Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury, implements the Book of Common Prayer.
1550 - 1555	Julius III	Indolent and devoted to personal pleasure.
1555	Marcellus II	Last pope to retain his own name. In office for 22 days.
1555 - 1559	Paul IV	Formerly archbishop ofNaples.
1556	Although Italy does not possess the political cohesiveness to replicate Spain's general expulsion of 1492, various anti-Semitic acts are perpetrated in the middle of this century. Members of the Jewish Diaspora in Italy gradually head north as the south becomes increasingly inhospitable to them. Then conditions in Rome worsen after 1556 and in theVenetian republic in the 1580s.
1559 - 1566	Pius IV Medici	A distant, and poorer, relative of the powerful Medicis.
1560 - 1562	A massacre of Protestants by Catholics near Paris in 1562 ignites the first of eight French Wars of Religion. Reforms have already been introduced in[French Navarre](IberiaNavarre.htm#French Navarre) and Bearn in line with the Calvinist beliefs of the ruling countess of Foix, co-ruler of Andorra.
1566 - 1572	St Pius V
1568 - 1571	The peace of Longjumeau of 23 March 1568, ends the Second French War of Religion but almost immediately the Third French War of Religion begins in September 1568. The Battle of Jarnac on 12 March 1569 kills the prince of Condé, the Protestant leader, and Henry of [Navarre](IberiaNavarre.htm#French Navarre) is appointed the new political leader while military leadership is in the hands of Gaspard de Coligny. On 8 August of 1570 the Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye is signed.
1571	Arranged by Pius V, the 'Holy League' of the Papal States, Spain, and Venice routs the Ottoman navy at the Battle of Lepanto. This is considered to be a great naval victory, one that is made even more sweet by the killing of the Ottoman admiral, Müezzinzade 'Sofu' Ali Pasha, former governor of [ Egypt](../KingListsAfrica/EgyptIslamic.htm#Ottoman Governors). European victory at the Battle of Lepanto was considered the saviour of Europe itself from the advancing Ottoman threat, shown in this 1640 oil by Andries van Eertvelt (1590-1652)
1572 - 1585	Gregory XIII	Pushed through Catholic church reforms.
1582	On 5-15 October 1582 the pope's Gregorian Calendar is instituted in Catholic Europe, but Protestant Northern Europe takes another century before it accepts the change.Great Britain accepts it in 1752, and Russia after the October Revolution of 1917.
1585 - 1590	Sixtus V
1590	Urban VII	Genoese. In office for 13 days.
1590	Despite his short term of office, Urban VII is notable for one very important ruling: he is perhaps the first person in history to impose a public smoking ban, in this case for anyone within the precincts of a church.
1590 - 1591	Gregory XIV	Milanese. In office for 10 months. Suffered from malaria.
1591	On 18 April, Pope Gregory commands that Catholics in the Philippines make reparations to natives who had been forced into slavery. All native slaves are ordered to be set free, under pain of excommunication for owners who disobey the command.
1591	Innocent IX	Former Titular Latin Patriarch of [Jerusalem](../KingListsMiddEast/CanaanJerusalem.htm#Second Kingdom). In office for 2 months.
1592 - 1605	Clement VIII	An able and efficient pope who threw off Spanish influence.
1605	Leo XI	In office for 26 days.
1605 - 1621	Paul V
1605	Catholic plotters, unhappy with the unsympathetic attitude of James I of England towards their faith (which he also shares) decide to try and blow up Parliament at the state opening, thereby leaving the way open for a Catholic takeover of Britain. The plot is foiled and it sours relations between Rome and England thereafter.
1621 - 1623	Gregory XV
1623 - 1644	Urban VIII	The last pope to extend the Papal States by force of arms.
1626	The construction of the Basilica of St Peter in Rome is completed. It boasts the largest interior of any Christian place of worship in the world, a record unbroken today.
1633	Astronomer Galileo Galilei is tried before the Inquisition for teaching that the Earth orbits the sun.
1634 & 1642	Despite the ongoing Second Anglo-Powhatan War (1622-1644) in the Americas (and presumably only due to the relatively peaceful relations between English and the Patawomeck tribe) the Jesuit priest, Father Andrew White visits the main Patawomeck village, with the English Captain Henry Fleet as his guide. He makes peace with Archihu, the uncle and guardian of the young Patawomeck chief, Wahanganoche. In 1642 the chief and his family are baptised into the Catholic church by Father Andrew.
1644 - 1655	Innocent X	Great-great-great-grandson of Pope Alexander VI.
1648	The near-constant warfare and rapid change brought about by the Reformation and its papal response, the Counter Reformation, is finally ended by the Peace of Westphalia. Under its terms, Pomerania is carved up, with Sweden losing Further-Pomerania to Brandenburg-Prussia, while retaining Nearer-Pomerania. The northern part of the Netherlands emerges as an independent state under the house of [Orange](FranceHolland.htm#House of Orange). The bitter Marburger Succession Conflict between Hessen-Kassel andHessen-Darmstadt sees part of Hessen-Marburg ceded to Darmstadt to end the quarrel.Switzerland gains full independence from the[Austrian](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Archdukes)-dominatedHoly Roman empire. The papacy itself has been weakened by the aggressive acquisition of territory under Pope Urban VIII, and saddled with massive debts which severely weakens the options available to subsequent popes in defending the Papal States and maintaining military influence in Europe.
1655 - 1667	Alexander VII
1667 - 1670	Clement IX	In office for 17 months.
1670 - 1676	Clement X
1676 - 1689	Innocent XI
1684 - 1699	Modelled after the Treaty of Warsaw, a 'Holy League' is formed by the Papal States to prevent furtherOttoman expansion into Europe. This coalition consists of the massed forces of theHoly Roman empire, Poland,Russia,Venice, and Spain.
1688	Feeling against the blatantly anti-Protestant James II of England flares up when his second wife, Mary of Modena, gives birth to a Catholic heir (commonly believed to be a changeling). His brother-in-law, William of Orange, lands in Britain with a [ Dutch](FranceHolland.htm#House of Orange) army and, such is the state of James' relations with the papacy, it seems that the pope himself provides financing for William's Glorious Revolution.
1689 - 1691	Alexander VIII	Son of the chancellor ofVenice. In office for 16 months.
1691 - 1700	Innocent XII	[ Neapolitan](ItalySicily.htm#Aragons United).
Modern Popes (Roman Catholic Church) / Vatican City State AD 1700 - Present Day The papacy in the modern era was very different to that of its heyday in the medieval period. Its military power faded fast, its territories were lost during the revolutionary age until all it retained was Vatican City, and its authority over the world's Catholics was steadily diminished by the rise of rationalism and scientific discovery. Even its last warship had to be sold in the nineteenth century thanks to the lack of a papal harbour. However, the period did see a sensible and much-needed retrenchment, and a stronger office emerged in the late twentieth century which, especially during the long papacy of Pope John Paul II, confirmed the faith of many millions of Catholics around the world.
1700 - 1721	Clement XI
1702 - 1715	Spain is involved in the War of Succession as [Austria](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Archdukes),Britain, and [Portugal](IberiaPortugal.htm#Kingdom of Braganza) dispute the Bourbon accession. The conclusion of the war sees Spain giving up Milan,Naples,Sardinia, and the Spanish Netherlands (modern Belgium) to Austria, and [Sicily](ItalySicily.htm#Aragons United) to the duchy of Savoy. The Papal States are forced to hand over the territories of Parma and Piacenza to Austria, a definite blow to the papacy's prestige. Philip, duke of Anjou, is recognised as the Bourbon King Philip V of Spain, but only on the condition that the Bourbon crowns of Spain and France can never be united under a single ruler. The War of the Spanish Succession was fought to avoid a shift in the balance of power in Europe with the proposed unification of the Bourbon kingdoms of Spain and France
1721 - 1724	Innocent XIII
1724 - 1730	Benedict XIII
1730 - 1740	Clement XII
1740 - 1758	Benedict XIV	Resolved problems surrounding the secular nomination of bishops.
1758	The Catholic church is beginning to make inroads into converting the Confucian Koreans to Catholicism, especially in two of the central provinces. King Yeongjo takes steps to prevent this by outlawing the religion, classifying it as an evil religion.
1758 - 1769	Clement XIII	Fought a losing battle to prevent the expulsion of Jesuits in Europe.
1769 - 1775	Clement XIV
1773	Over the past few years the Jesuits have been expelled fromBrazil (1754), [Portugal](IberiaPortugal.htm#Kingdom of Braganza) (1759), France (1764),Spain and its colonies (1767), and Parma (1768). They are formally suppressed by the pope in 1773, although the Protestant states of Europe ignore this, as they do not recognise the authority of the pope, In 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars, the Jesuits are restored throughout Europe.
1775 - 1800	Pius VI	Reformed the administration of the Papal States.
1796 - 1800	Republican [France](FranceFranks.htm#First Republic) begins the conquest of[ Austria](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Archdukes %28Lorraine%29)'s territories inItaly. Rome is occupied by force in 1798 and a Roman republic is proclaimed (1798-1799), using the territory of the Papal States. The pope is required to renounce his temporal authority, and when he refuses he is taken prisoner. He is taken off into captivity and dies shortly after his arrival in Valence. Austrian victories in Italy force the French to withdraw from Rome.
1800 - 1823	Pius VII	Continually in conflict with Napoleon Bonaparte.
1801	A Concordat is agreed with[ French](FranceFranks.htm#First Empire) Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte to restore the links between Rome and the French Church. However, the Peace of Luneville in the same year compensates several German princes for losses of territory by assigning to them ecclesiastical land inGermany taken from the pope.
1808 - 1815	With relations between[French](FranceFranks.htm#First Empire) Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte and the pope deteriorating rapidly in 1808, Rome is occupied by a division of French troops. The following year the remaining Papal States are annexed to the French empire, includingSpoleto. When Pius VII subsequently excommunicates Napoleon, the French capture Castel Sant'Angelo, and a French officer breaks into the papal residence and kidnaps the pope himself. The pope remains a French captive for six years, being moved around Europe to various holding points. In 1815, with Napoleon's removal from European politics,[Austria](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Emperors) renews its control of northern[Italy](ItalyKingdom.htm#Austria Restored), and the Papal States are restored to Rome.
1823 - 1829	Leo XII	Elected as he was thought to be dying. He rallied.
1829 - 1831	Pius VIII	In office for 20 months.
1831 - 1846	Gregory XVI	An opponent of democratic reform and modernisation.
1846 - 1878	Blessed Pius IX	Enjoyed the longest pontificate in history.
1859 - 1866	During 1859-1861, Italy is forged by nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi into a single kingdom during the War of Unification, freeing Italy from [Austrian](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Emperors) control. The Savoyard king of Sardinia becomes king of Italy (a title previously held by the Holy Roman Emperors), gaining Parma, [Sicily & Naples](ItalySicily.htm#Two Sicilies Reunited), and Spoleto, but at the same time losing Savoy to [France](FranceFranks.htm#Second Empire). In 1866 Venice is annexed and added to Italy, while much of the Papal States has already been absorbed by this date.
1869 - 1870	The First Vatican Council follows the 1868 papal decree which forbids Italian Catholics from participating in parliamentary elections. The council also serves to consolidate papal authority during a century of revolution and rapid change.
1870 - 1871	With the seizure of Rome in 1870,Italy achieves full union under the House of Savoy. The following year, Rome becomes its capital for the first time since the collapse of the WesternRoman empire, and the last vestiges of the Papal States are absorbed into the new kingdom. The delegates of the 1871 Plenipotentiary Conference in Rome pose for a group photo, shortly after Italy achieved full unification under the House of Savoy
1878 - 1903	Leo XIII	Ended his papacy as the oldest pope in history.
1878	Leo XIII is the first pope since the eighth century to inherit no papal territories. During his period in office, the last papal warship, the Immaculate Conception, which had been anchored at Toulon in the south ofFrance, is sold due to the lack of a papal harbour.
1903	Construction of the Cathedral Church of Westminster is completed in London to serve as the senior church in the British Isles for the Catholic Church. It is the first time the Catholic Church has possessed such a building in Britain since its loss of Canterbury Cathedral in the 1530s. In the same year, political manoeuvring denies the pro-French Cardinal Rampolla the office of pope to replace the late Leo XIII. Although Rampolla achieves the sufficient level of support during conclave, Cardinal Jan Puzyna de Kosielsko, archbishop of Krakow, delivers the veto on behalf of Franz Joseph I of[Austria-Hungary](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Emperors). This is in revenge for the cardinal denying a church funeral for the emperor's son, Crown Prince Rudolph, when the latter had committed suicide.
1903 - 1914	St Pius X	An opponent of 'modernism'.
1914 - 1922	Benedict XV	Attempted to negotiate peace during the First World War.
1914 - 1918	The German empire moves swiftly to support its ally, [Austria-Hungary](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Emperors), in a long-anticipated Great War (later more readily known as the First World War, or World War I). The Baltic Provinces, Belgium, Bolivia,Brazil, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, Estonia, France, Great Britain and its territories and colonies (including India), [Guatemala](../KingListsAmericas/CentralGuatemala.htm#Modern Guatemala), Honduras, Italy,[Latvia](EasternLatvia.htm#Russian Governors),[Lithuania](EasternLithuania.htm#Russian Governors), Nicaragua, Panama, Peru,Portugal,Russia,Turkey, Uruguay, and the USA are all dragged in, but other countries remain neutral, including the Holy See. Pope Benedict attempts to suggest a truce at Christmas 1914. The Germans accept but he is generally snubbed by the Allies. In 1918, with the collapse of the[Austro-Hungarian](GermanyAustria.htm#Habsburg Emperors) empire at the end of the war, and the agreement of a ceasefire on 3 November, Italy inherits the province ofIstria.
1922 - 1939	Pius XI	Healed the rift between papal office and Italy.
1922	The fascist leader Benito Mussolini becomes dictator of Italy and has the support (officially, at least) of the king. He also seeks to heal the breach between church and state, an act that will strengthen his position, but this takes until 1929 to achieve.
1929	The pope and Mussolini sign the Lateran Treaty, finally settling the breach between the Italian government and the papacy that has existed since the seizure of the Papal States in 1870. The treaty establishes the independent Vatican City State.
1939 - 1958	Pius XII
1943 - 1945	The Italian fleet surrenders at Valetta, Malta, on 10 September 1943, giving Britain's Royal Navy control of the Mediterranean. With the collapse and surrender of the Italians, much of Italy (especially the north) is occupied by Nazi Germans. Mussolini is summarily executed after being captured by partisans in 1945. Pope Pius XII is pictured with Mussolini in the uniform of the Knights of Malta which, when added to the pope's silence during the worst of the Second World War's atrocities, gave him a rather dubious reputation
1946	Italy becomes a republic when the king is forced into exile as punishment for his support of Mussolini.
1958 - 1963	St John XXIII	First Pope John since 1334.
1960	British archbishop ofCanterbury Geoffrey Francis Fisher is the first incumbent of his office to visit the pope since the Reformation.
1962 - 1965	The Second Vatican Council is called in order to revise the liturgy and reform the church's approach to the modern world. One of the results of this is[Spain](IberiaSpain.htm#Second Republic) rescinding its Alhambra Decree of 1492 to permit settlement in the country of the Jewish Diaspora population. This pope is the last to use the full papal ceremonial, and following his death not long after the council is convened, his successor uses a trimmed-down version of the ceremonial, with some features being abandoned.
1963 - 1978	Paul VI
1978	John Paul I	In office for 33 days before his death.
1978 - 2005	St John Paul II	264th (Official) pope. First Polish pope. Died 2 April aged 84.
2005 - 2013	Benedict XVI	Conservative [Bavarian](GermanyBavarians.htm#Hereditary Kings of Bavaria) Cardinal John Ratzinger. Abdicated aged 85.
2013	On 11 February, Benedict XVI makes the shock announcement that he is to resign his office at the end of the month. His decision is based on his age and his belief that he can no longer adequately perform the duties of office. With little time for the Vatican to prepare a papal election, the office remains vacant for a brief period of time.
2013 - Present	Francis	Argentine Jesuit Cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio. Aged 76.