HIV-1 pathogenesis (original) (raw)

• Barre-Sinoussi, F. et al. Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science 220, 868–871 (1983).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Popovic, M., Read, E. & Gallo, R.C. Detection, isolation and continuous production of cytopathic retroviruses (HTLV-III) from patients with AIDS and pre-AIDS. Science 224, 497–500 (1984).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Levy, J.A., Hoffman, A.D., Kramer, S.M., Landis, J.A. & Shimabukuro, J.M. Isolation of lymphocytopathic retroviruses from San Francisco patients with AIDS. Science 225, 840–842 (1984).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dalgleish, A.G. et al. The CD4 (T4) antigen is an essential component of the receptor for the AIDS retrovirus. Nature 312, 763–767 (1984).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Klatzmann, D. et al. T-lymphocyte T4 molecule behaves as the receptor for human retrovirus LAV. Nature 312, 767–768 (1984).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Feng, Y., Broder, C.C., Kennedy, P.E. & Berger, E.A. HIV-1 entry cofactor: functional cDNA cloning of a seven-transmembrane, G protein-coupled receptor. Science 272, 872–877 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Choe, H. et al. The β-chemokine receptors CCR3 and CCR5 facilitate infection by primary HIV-1 isolates. Cell 85, 1135–1148 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Deng, H. et al. Identification of a major co-receptor for primary isolates of HIV-1. Nature 381, 661–666 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Alkhatib, G. et al. CC CKR5: a RANTES, MIP-1α, MIP-1β receptor as a fusion cofactor for macrophage-tropic HIV-1. Science 272, 1955–1958 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Dragic, T. et al. HIV-1 entry into CD4+ cells is mediated by the chemokine receptor CC-CKR-5. Nature 381, 667–673 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Perelson, A.S. Modelling viral and immune system dynamics. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 2, 28–36 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wei, X. et al. Viral dynamics in human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infection. Nature 373, 117–122 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ho, D.D. et al. Rapid turnover of plasma virions and CD4 lymphocytes in HIV-1 infection. Nature 373, 123–126 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schnittman, S.M. et al. The reservoir for HIV-1 in human peripheral blood is a T cell that maintains expression of CD4. Science 245, 305–308 (1989).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Adams, M. et al. Cellular latency in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals with high CD4 levels can be detected by the presence of promoter-proximal transcripts. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 3862–3866 (1994).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Seshamma, T., Bagasra, O., Trono, D., Baltimore, D. & Pomerantz, R. Blocked early-stage latency in the peripheral blood cells of certain individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 10663–10667 (1992).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Chun, T.W. et al. Quantification of latent tissue reservoirs and total body viral load in HIV-1 infection. Nature 387, 183–188 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Finzi, D. et al. Identification of a reservoir for HIV-1 in patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. Science 278, 1295–1300 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wong, J.K. et al. Recovery of replication-competent HIV despite prolonged suppression of plasma viremia. Science 278, 1291–1227 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zack, J.A. et al. HIV-1 entry into quiescent primary lymphocytes: molecular analysis reveals a labile, latent viral structure. Cell 61, 213–222 (1990).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Stevenson, M., Stanwick, T.L., Dempsey, M.P. & Lamonica, C.A. HIV-1 replication is controlled at the level of T cell activation and proviral integration. EMBO J. 9, 1551–1560 (1990).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Zhang, Z. et al. Sexual transmission and propagation of SIV and HIV in resting and activated CD4+ T cells. Science 286, 1353–1357 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Unutmaz, D., Kewal-Ramani, V.N., Marmon, S. & Littman, D.R. Cytokine signals are sufficient for HIV-1 infection of resting human T lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 189, 1735–1746 (1999).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Eckstein, D.A. et al. HIV-1 actively replicates in naive CD4+ T cells residing within human lymphoid tissues. Immunity 15, 671–82 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Spina, C.A., Kwoh, T.J., Chowers, M.Y., Guatelli, J.C. & Richman, D.D. The importance of nef in the induction of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 replication from primary quiescent CD4 lymphocytes. J. Exp. Med. 179, 115–123 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Miller, M.D., Warmerdam, M.T., Gaston, I., Greene, W.C. & Feinberg, M.B. The human immunodeficiency virus-1 nef gene product: a positive factor for viral infection and replication in primary lymphocytes and macrophages. J. Exp. Med. 179, 101–13 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Swingler, S. et al. HIV-1 Nef intersects the CD40L signaling pathway in macrophages to promote resting cell infection. Nature (in the press).
• Wu, Y. & Marsh, J.W. Selective transcription and modulation of resting T cell activity by preintegrated HIV DNA. Science 293, 1503–1506 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schroder, A.R. et al. HIV-1 integration in the human genome favors active genes and local hotspots. Cell 110, 521–529 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jordan, A., Defechereux, P. & Verdin, E. The site of HIV-1 integration in the human genome determines basal transcriptional activity and response to Tat transactivation. EMBO J. 20, 1726–38 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Gartner, S. et al. The role of mononuclear phagocytes in HTLV-III/LAV infection. Science 233, 215–219 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Koenig, S. et al. Detection of AIDS virus in macrophages in brain tissue from AIDS patients with encephalopathy. Science 233, 1089–1093 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wiley, C.A., Schrier, R.D., Nelson, J.A., Lampert, P.W. & Oldstone, M.B.A. Cellular localization of human immunodeficiency virus infection within the brains of acquired immune deficiency syndrome patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 7089–7093 (1986).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Weinberg, J.B., Matthews, T.J., Cullen, B.R. & Malim, M.H. Productive human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection of nonproliferating human monocytes. J. Exp. Med. 174, 1477–1482 (1991).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Bukrinsky, M.I. et al. Active nuclear import of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 preintegration complexes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89, 6580–6584 (1992).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Lewis, P., Hensel, M. & Emerman, M. Human immunodeficiency virus infection of cells arrested in the cell cycle. EMBO J. 11, 3053–3058 (1992).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Dean, M. et al. Genetic restriction of HIV-1 infection and progression to AIDS by a deletion allele of the CKR5 structural gene. Science 273, 1856–1862 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Liu, R. et al. Homozygous defect in HIV-1 coreceptor accounts for resistance of some multiply-exposed individuals to HIV-1 infection. Cell 86, 367–377 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Samson, M. et al. Resistance to HIV-1 infection in caucasian individuals bearing mutant alleles of the CCR-5 chemokine receptor gene. Nature 382, 722–725 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Veazey, R.S. et al. Gastrointestinal tract as a major site of CD4+ T cell depletion and viral replication in SIV infection. Science 280, 427–431 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Igarashi, T. et al. Macrophage are the principal reservoir and sustain high virus loads in rhesus macaques after the depletion of CD4+ T cells by a highly pathogenic simian immunodeficiency virus/HIV type 1 chimera (SHIV): Implications for HIV-1 infections of humans. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 658–663 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Eckstein, D.A. et al. HIV-1 Vpr enhances viral burden by facilitating infection of tissue macrophages but not nondividing CD4+ T cells. J. Exp. Med. 194, 1407–1419 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Embretson, J. et al. Massive covert infection of helper T lymphocytes and macrophages by HIV during the incubation period of AIDS. Nature 362, 359–362 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Orenstein, J.M., Meltzer, M.S., Phipps, T. & Gendelman, H.E. Cytoplasmic Assembly and accumulation of human immunodeficiency virus types 1 and 2 in recombinant human colony-stimulating factor-1-treated human monocytes: An ultrastructural study. J. Virol. 62, 2578–2586 (1988).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Raposo, G. et al. Human macrophages accumulate HIV-1 particles in MHC II compartments. Traffic 3, 718–729 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Muller, H., Falk, S. & Stutte, H.J. Accessory cells as primary target of human immunodeficiency virus HIV infection. J. Clin. Pathol. 39, 1161 (1986).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Le Tourneau, A. et al. Viral type particles in the germinal centers during a lymphadenopathic syndrome related to AIDS. Ann. Pathol. 5, 137–142 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tenner-Racz, K. et al. HTLV-III/LAV viral antigens in lymph nodes of homosexual men with persistent generalized lymphadenopathy and AIDS. Am. J. Pathol. 123, 9–15 (1986).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Tschachler, E. et al. Epidermal Langerhans cells—a target for HTLV-III/LAV infection. J. Invest. Dermatol. 88, 233–237 (1987).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Patterson, S. & Knight, S.C. Susceptibility of human peripheral blood dendritic cells to infection by human immunodeficiency virus. J. Gen. Virol. 68, 1177–1181 (1987).
  PubMed Google Scholar
• Spiegel, H., Herbst, H., Niedobitek, G., Foss, H.D. & Stein, H. Follicular dendritic cells are a major reservoir for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 in lymphoid tissues facilitating infection of CD4+ T-helper cells. Am. J. Pathol. 140, 15–22 (1992).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Pantaleo, G. et al. HIV infection is active and progressive in lymphoid tissue during the clinically latent stage of disease. Nature 362, 355–358 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cameron, P.U. et al. Dendritic cells exposed to human immunodeficiency virus type-1 transmit a vigorous cytopathic infection to CD4+ T cells. Science 257, 383–387 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pope, M. et al. Conjugates of dendritic cells and memory T lymphocytes from skin facilitate productive infection with HIV-1. Cell 78, 389–398 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Geijtenbeek, T.B. et al. DC-SIGN, a dendritic cell-specific HIV-1-binding protein that enhances trans-infection of T cells. Cell 100, 587–597 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Turville, S.G. et al. Diversity of receptors binding HIV on dendritic cell subsets. Nat. Immunol. 3, 975–983 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kwon, D.S., Gregorio, G., Bitton, N., Hendrickson, W.A. & Littman, D.R. DC-SIGN-mediated internalization of HIV is required for trans-enhancement of T cell infection. Immunity 16, 135–144 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Smith, B.A. et al. Persistence of infectious HIV on follicular dendritic cells. J. Immunol. 166, 690–696 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Moore, J. & Stevenson, M. New targets for inhibitors of HIV-1 replication. Nat. Rev. Mol. Cell Biol. 1, 40–49 (2000).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ratner, L. et al. Complete nucleotide sequence of the AIDS virus, HTLV-III. Nature 313, 277–284 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wain-Hobson, S., Sonigo, P., Danos, O., Cole, S. & Alizon, M. Nucleotide sequence of the AIDS virus, LAV. Cell 40, 9–17 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sanchez-Pescador, R. et al. Nucleotide sequence and expression of an AIDS-associated retrovirus (ARV-2). Science 227, 484–492 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wong-Staal, F. et al. Genomic diversity of human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III). Science 229, 759–762 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Arya, S.K., Guo, C., Josephs, S.F. & Wong-Staal, F. _Trans_-activator gene of human T-lymphotropic virus type III (HTLV-III). Science 229, 69–73 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sodroski, J., Patarca, R. & Rosen, C. Location of the _trans_-activating region of the genome of human T cell lymphotropic virus type III. Science 229, 74–77 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wright, C.M., Felder, B.K., Paskalis, H. & Pavlakis, G.N. Expression and characterization of the _trans_-activator of HTLV-III/LAV virus. Science 234, 988–992 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sodroski, J. et al. A second post-transcriptional _trans_-activator gene required for HTLV-III replication. Nature 321, 412–417 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cullen, B.R. _Trans_-activation of human immunodeficiency virus occurs via a bimodal mechanism. Cell 46, 973–982 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cohen, E.A., Terwilliger, E.F., Sodroski, J.G. & Haseltine, W.A. Identification of a protein encoded by the vpu gene of HIV-1. Nature 334, 532–534 (1988).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Strebel, K., Klimkait, T. & Martin, M.A. A novel gene of HIV-1, vpu, and its 16-kilodalton product. Science 241, 1221–1223 (1988).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Arya, S.K. & Gallo, R.C. Three novel genes of human T-lymphotropic virus type III: immune reactivity of their products with sera from acquired immune deficiency syndrome patients. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83, 2209–2213 (1986).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Strebel, K. et al. The HIV 'A' (sor) gene product is essential for virus infectivity. Nature 328, 728–730 (1987).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fisher, A.G. et al. The sor gene of HIV-1 is required for efficient virus transmission in vitro. Science 237, 888–893 (1987).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kestler, H.W. et al. Importance of the nef gene for maintenance of high virus loads and for development of AIDS. Cell 65, 651–662 (1991).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cocchi, F. et al. Identification of RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β as the major HIV-suppressive factors produced by CD8+ T Cells. Science 270, 1811–1815 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kinoshita, S., Chen, B.K., Kaneshima, H. & Nolan, G.P. Host control of HIV-1 parasitism in T cells by the nuclear factor of activated T cells. Cell 95, 595–604 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kalpana, G.V., Marmon, S., Wang, W., Crabtree, G.R. & Goff, S.P. Binding and stimulation of HIV-1 integrase by a human homolog of yeast transcription factor SNF5. Science 266, 2002–2006 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Farnet, C.M. & Bushman, F.D. HIV-1 cDNA integration: requirement of HMG I(Y) protein for function of preintegration complexes in vitro. Cell 88, 483–492 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Chen, H. & Engelman, A. The barrier-to-autointegration protein is a host factor for HIV type 1 integration. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95, 15270–15274 (1998).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Wei, P., Garber, M.E., Fang, S.M., Fischer, W.H. & Jones, K.A. A novel CDK9-associated C-type cyclin interacts directly with HIV-1 Tat and mediates its high-affinity, loop-specific binding to TAR RNA. Cell 92, 451–462 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fornerod, M., Ohno, M., Yoshida, M. & Mattaj, I.W. CRM1 is an export receptor for leucine-rich nuclear export signals. Cell 90, 1051–1060 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Fukuda, M. et al. CRM1 is responsible for intracellular transport mediated by the nuclear export signal. Nature 390, 308–311 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Neville, M., Stutz, F., Lee, L., Davis, L.I. & Rosbash, M. The importin-β family member Crm1p bridges the interaction between Rev and the nuclear pore complex during nuclear export. Curr. Biol. 7, 767–775 (1997).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Franke, E.K., Yuan, H.E.H. & Luban, J. Specific incorporation of cyclophilin A into HIV-1 virions. Nature 372, 359–362 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Thali, M. et al. Functional association of cyclophilin A with HIV-1 virions. Nature 372, 363–365 (1994).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zimmerman, C. et al. Identification of a host protein essential for assembly of immature HIV-1 capsids. Nature 415, 88–92 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Garrus, J.E. et al. Tsg101 and the vacuolar protein sorting pathway are essential for HIV-1 budding. Cell 107, 55–65 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• VerPlank, L. et al. Tsg101, a homologue of ubiquitin-conjugating (E2) enzymes, binds the L domain in HIV type 1 Pr55(Gag). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 7724–7729 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Madani, N. & Kabat, D. An endogenous inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus in human lymphocytes is overcome by the viral Vif protein. J. Virol. 72, 10251–10255 (1998).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Simon, J.H.M., Gaddis, N.C., Fouchier, R.A.M. & Malim, M.H. Evidence for a newly discovered cellular anti-HIV-1 phenotype. Nat. Med. 4, 1397–1400 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sheehy, A.M., Gaddis, N.C., Choi, J.D. & Malim, M.H. Isolation of a human gene that inhibits HIV-1 infection and is suppressed by the viral Vif protein. Nature 418, 646–650 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Munk, C., Brandt, S.M., Lucero, G. & Landau, N.R. A dominant block to HIV-1 replication at reverse transcription in simian cells. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 13843–13848 (2002).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Hatziioannou, T., Cowan, S., Goff, S.P., Bieniasz, P.D. & Towers, G.J. Restriction of multiple divergent retroviruses by Lv1 and Ref1. EMBO J. 22, 385–394 (2003).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Cullen, B.R. RNA interference: antiviral defense and genetic tool. Nat. Immunol. 3, 597–599 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Piatak, M. Jr. et al. High levels of HIV-1 in plasma during all stages of infection determined by competitive PCR. Science 259, 1749–1754 (1993).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Mellors, J.W. et al. Prognosis in HIV-1 infection predicted by the quantity of virus in plasma. Science 272, 1167–1170 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Deacon, N.J. et al. Genomic structure of an attenuated quasi species of HIV-1 from a blood transfusion donor and recipients. Science 270, 988–991 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kirchhoff, F., Greenough, T.C., Brettler, D.B., Sullivan, J.L. & Desrosiers, R.C. Brief report: absence of intact nef sequences in a long-term survivor with nonprogressive HIV-1 infection. N. Engl. J. Med. 332, 228–232 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Huang, Y. et al. The role of a mutant CCR5 allele in HIV-1 transmission and disease progression. Nat. Med. 2, 1240–3 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lifson, J.D. et al. Induction of CD4-dependent cell fusion by the HTLV-III/LAV envelope glycoprotein. Nature 323, 725–728 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sodroski, J., Goh, W.C., Rosen, C., Campbell, K. & Haseltine, W.A. Role of the HTLV-III/LAV envelope in syncytium formation and cytopathicity. Nature 322, 470–474 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• LaBonte, J.A., Patel, T., Hofmann, W. & Sodroski, J. Importance of membrane fusion mediated by human immunodeficiency virus envelope glycoproteins for lysis of primary CD4-positive T cells. J. Virol. 74, 10690–10698 (2000).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Etemad-Moghadam, B. et al. Membrane-fusing capacity of the human immunodeficiency virus envelope proteins determines the efficiency of CD4+ T cell depletion in macaques infected by a simian-human immunodeficiency virus. J. Virol. 75, 5646–5655 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Stewart, S.A., Poon, B., Jowett, J.B.M. & Chen, I.S.Y. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Vpr induces apoptosis following cell cycle arrest. J. Virol. 71, 5579–5592 (1997).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Somasundaran, M. et al. Evidence for a cytopathogenicity determinant in HIV-1 Vpr. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99, 9503–9508 (2002).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Asjo, B. et al. Replicative capacity of human immunodeficiency virus from patients with varying severity of HIV infection. Lancet 2, 660–662 (1986).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cheng-Mayer, C., Seto, D., Tateno, M. & Levy, J.A. Biologic features of HIV-1 that correlate with virulence in the host. Science 240, 80–82 (1988).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tersmette, M. et al. Differential syncytium-inducing capacity of human immunodeficiency virus isolates: frequent detection of syncytium-inducing isolates in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related complex. J. Virol. 62, 2026–2032 (1988).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Connor, R.I., Sheridan, K.E., Ceradini, D., Choe, S. & Landau, N.R. Change in coreceptor use coreceptor use correlates with disease progression in HIV-1–infected individuals. J. Exp. Med. 185, 621–628 (1997).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Meyaard, L. et al. Programmed death of T cells in HIV-1 infection. Science 257, 217–219 (1992).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Finkel, T.H. et al. Apoptosis occurs predominantly in bystander cells and not in productively infected cells of HIV- and SIV-infected lymph nodes. Nat. Med. 1, 129–134 (1995).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Geleziunas, R., Xu, W., Takeda, K., Ichijo, H. & Greene, W.C. HIV-1 Nef inhibits ASK1-dependent death signalling providing a potential mechanism for protecting the infected host cell. Nature 410, 834–838 (2001).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wolthers, K.C. et al. T cell telomere length in HIV-1 infection: no evidence for increased CD4+ T cell turnover. Science 274, 1543–1546 (1996).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hellerstein, M. et al. Directly measured kinetics of circulating T lymphocytes in normal and HIV-1-infected humans. Nat. Med. 5, 83–89 (1999).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kovacs, J.A. et al. Identification of dynamically distinct subpopulations of T lymphocytes that are differentially affected by HIV. J. Exp. Med. 194, 1731–1741 (2001).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Grossman, Z., Meier-Schellersheim, M., Sousa, A.E., Victorino, R.M. & Paul, W.E. CD4+ T cell depletion in HIV infection: are we closer to understanding the cause? Nat. Med. 8, 319–323 (2002).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Douek, D.C. et al. Changes in thymic function with age and during the treatment of HIV infection. Nature 396, 690–695 (1998).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Letvin, N.L. et al. Induction of AIDS-like disease in macaque monkeys with T cell tropic retrovirus STLV-III. Science 230, 71–73 (1985).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rey-Cuille, M.A. et al. Simian immunodeficiency virus replicates to high levels in sooty mangabeys without inducing disease. J. Virol. 72, 3872–3886 (1998).
  CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Silvestri, G. et al. Nonpathogenic SIV infection of sooty mangabeys is characterized by limited bystander immunopathology despite chronic high-level viremia. Immunity 18, 441–452 (2003).
  CAS PubMed Google Scholar