The tor pathway: a target for cancer therapy (original) (raw)
Sehgal, S. N., Baker, H. & Vezina, C. Rapamycin (AY-22,989), a new antifungal antibiotic. II. Fermentation, isolation and characterization. J. Antibiot.28, 727–732 (1975). ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Vezina, C., Kudelski, A. & Sehgal, S. N. Rapamycin (AY-22,989), a new antifungal antibiotic. I. Taxonomy of the producing streptomycete and isolation of the active principle. J. Antibiot.28, 721–726 (1975). CAS Google Scholar
Sehgal, S. N. Rapamune (RAPA, rapamycin, sirolimus): mechanism of action immunosuppressive effect results from blockade of signal transduction and inhibition of cell cycle progression. Clin. Biochem.31, 335–340 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Calne, R. Y. et al. Rapamycin for immunosuppression in organ allografting. Lancet2, 227 (1989). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schreiber, S. L. Chemistry and biology of the immunophilins and their immunosuppressive ligands. Science251, 283–287 (1991). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Pohanka, E. New immunosuppressive drugs: an update. Curr. Opin. Urol.11, 143–151 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Saunders, R. N., Metcalfe, M. S. & Nicholson, M. L. Rapamycin in transplantation: a review of the evidence. Kidney Int.59, 3–16 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Harris, T. E. & Lawrence, J. C. Jr. TOR signaling. Sci. STKE 9 Dec 2003 (doi: 10.1126/stke.2122003re15).
Brown, E. J. et al. A mammalian protein targeted by G1-arresting rapamycin-receptor complex. Nature369, 756–758 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gingras, A. C., Raught, B. & Sonenberg, N. Regulation of translation initiation by FRAP/mTOR. Genes Dev.15, 807–826 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Jacinto, E. & Hall, M. N. Tor signalling in bugs, brain and brawn. Nature Rev. Mol. Cell Biol.4, 117–126 (2003). CAS Google Scholar
Abraham, R. T. Identification of TOR signaling complexes: more TORC for the cell growth engine. Cell111, 9–12 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hentges, K. E. et al. FRAP/mTOR is required for proliferation and patterning during embryonic development in the mouse. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98, 13796–13801 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hentges, K., Thompson, K. & Peterson, A. The flat-top gene is required for the expansion and regionalization of the telencephalic primordium. Development126, 1601–1609 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Cardenas, M. E., Cutler, N. S., Lorenz, M. C., Di Como, C. J. & Heitman, J. The TOR signaling cascade regulates gene expression in response to nutrients. Genes Dev.13, 3271–3279 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hardwick, J. S., Kuruvilla, F. G., Tong, J. K., Shamji, A. F. & Schreiber, S. L. Rapamycin-modulated transcription defines the subset of nutrient-sensitive signaling pathways directly controlled by the Tor proteins. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA96, 14866–14870 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Powers, T. & Walter, P. Regulation of ribosome biogenesis by the rapamycin-sensitive TOR-signaling pathway in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol. Biol. Cell10, 987–1000 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Kim, D. H. et al. mTOR interacts with raptor to form a nutrient-sensitive complex that signals to the cell growth machinery. Cell110, 163–175 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hara, K. et al. Raptor, a binding partner of target of rapamycin (TOR), mediates TOR action. Cell110, 177–189 (2002). References 18 and 19 report the identification of raptor as a 150-kDa TOR-binding protein that also binds 4E-BP1 and S6K1. The binding of raptor to TOR is necessary for the TOR-catalysed phosphorylation of 4E-BP1in vitroand strongly enhances the TOR kinase activity towards p70α. So, raptor is an essential scaffold for the TOR-catalysed phosphorylation of 4E-BP1 and mediates TOR actionin vivo. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Loewith, R. et al. Two TOR complexes, only one of which is rapamycin sensitive, have distinct roles in cell growth control. Mol. Cell10, 457–468 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kim, D. H. et al. GβL, a positive regulator of the rapamycin-sensitive pathway required for the nutrient-sensitive interaction between raptor and mTOR. Mol. Cell11, 895–904 (2003). References 20 and 21 identified GβL (the homologue of yeast Lst8) as a modulator of TOR kinase activity, stabilizing the interaction of raptor with TOR. The binding of GβL to TOR strongly stimulates the kinase activity of TOR towards S6K1 and 4E-BP1, an effect that is reversed by the stable interaction of raptor with TOR. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schalm, S. S. & Blenis, J. Identification of a conserved motif required for mTOR signaling. Curr. Biol.12, 632–639 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Schalm, S. S., Fingar, D. C., Sabatini, D. M. & Blenis, J. TOS Motif-mediated raptor binding regulates 4E-BP1 multisite phosphorylation and function. Curr. Biol.13, 797–806 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rajan, P., Panchision, D. M., Newell, L. F. & McKay, R. D. BMPs signal alternately through a SMAD or FRAP–STAT pathway to regulate fate choice in CNS stem cells. J. Cell Biol.161, 911–921 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Coolican, S. A., Samuel, D. S., Ewton, D. Z., McWade, F. J. & Florini, J. R. The mitogenic and myogenic actions of insulin-like growth factors utilize distinct signaling pathways. J. Biol. Chem.272, 6653–6662 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shu, L., Zhang, X. & Houghton, P. J. Myogenic differentiation is dependent on both the kinase function and the N-terminal sequence of mammalian target of rapamycin. J. Biol. Chem.277, 16726–16732 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Erbay, E. & Chen, J. The mammalian target of rapamycin regulates C2C12 myogenesis via a kinase-independent mechanism. J. Biol. Chem.276, 36079–36082 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Martin, K. A. et al. The mTOR/p70 S6K1 pathway regulates vascular smooth muscle cell differentiation. Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol.286, C507–C17 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Drenan, R. M., Liu, X., Bertram, P. G. & Zheng, X. F. FRAP/mTOR localization in the ER and the golgi apparatus. J. Biol. Chem.24, 24 (2003). Google Scholar
Kim, J. E. & Chen, J. Cytoplasmic–nuclear shuttling of FKBP12-rapamycin-associated protein is involved in rapamycin-sensitive signaling and translation initiation. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA97, 14340–14345 (2000). This study reveals a novel regulatory mechanism, which involves cytoplasmic–nuclear shuttling of TOR. Results indicate that TOR is a cytoplasmic–nuclear shuttling protein and uncover a function for the nucleus in the direct regulation of the protein-synthesis machinery. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Zhang, X., Shu, L., Hosoi, H., Murti, K. G. & Houghton, P. J. Predominant nuclear localization of mammalian target of rapamycin in normal and malignant cells in culture. J. Biol. Chem.277, 28127–28134 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tirado, O. M., Mateo-Lozano, S., Sanders, S., Dettin, L. E. & Notario, V. The PCPH oncoprotein antagonizes the proapoptotic role of the mammalian target of rapamycin in the response of normal fibroblasts to ionizing radiation. Cancer Res.63, 6290–6298 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sabatini, D. M. et al. Interaction of RAFT1 with gephyrin required for rapamycin-sensitive signaling. Science284, 1161–1164 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tang, S. J. et al. A rapamycin-sensitive signaling pathway contributes to long-term synaptic plasticity in the hippocampus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA99, 467–472 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lawrence, J. C., Lin, T. A., McMahon, L. P. & Choi, K. M. Modulation of the protein kinase activity of mTOR. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol.279, 199–213 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dan, H. C. et al. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt pathway regulates tuberous sclerosis tumor suppressor complex by phosphorylation of tuberin. J. Biol. Chem.277, 35364–35370 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Inoki, K., Li, Y., Zhu, T., Wu, J. & Guan, K. L. TSC2 is phosphorylated and inhibited by Akt and suppresses mTOR signalling. Nature Cell Biol.4, 648–657 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Potter, C. J., Pedraza, L. G. & Xu, T. Akt regulates growth by directly phosphorylating Tsc2. Nature Cell Biol.4, 658–665 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Manning, B. D., Tee, A. R., Logsdon, M. N., Blenis, J. & Cantley, L. C. Identification of the tuberous sclerosis complex-2 tumor suppressor gene product tuberin as a target of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/akt pathway. Mol. Cell10, 151–162 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gao, X. et al. Tsc tumour suppressor proteins antagonize amino-acid-TOR signalling. Nature Cell Biol.4, 699–704 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tee, A. R. et al. Tuberous sclerosis complex-1 and -2 gene products function together to inhibit mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-mediated downstream signaling. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA99, 13571–13576 (2002). References 37–41 show that TSC1–TSC2 inhibits S6K1 and activates 4E-BP1. These functions of TSC1–TSC2 are mediated by inhibiting TOR. Furthermore, TSC2 is directly phosphorylated and inactivated by AKT. Phosphorylation destabilizes TSC2 and disrupts its interaction with TSC1. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Zhang, H. et al. Loss of Tsc1/Tsc2 activates mTOR and disrupts PI3K-Akt signaling through downregulation of PDGFR. J. Clin. Invest.112, 1223–1233 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tee, A. R., Anjum, R. & Blenis, J. Inactivation of the tuberous sclerosis complex-1 and-2 gene products occurs by phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt-dependent and-independent phosphorylation of tuberin. J. Biol. Chem.278, 37288–37296 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Potter, C. J., Huang, H. & Xu, T. Drosophila Tsc1 functions with Tsc2 to antagonize insulin signaling in regulating cell growth, cell proliferation, and organ size. Cell105, 357–368 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nellist, M. et al. Identification and characterization of the interaction between tuberin and 14-3-3ζ. J. Biol. Chem.277, 39417–39424 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Li, Y., Inoki, K., Yeung, R. & Guan, K. L. Regulation of TSC2 by 14-3-3 binding. J. Biol. Chem.277, 44593–44596 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Liu, M. Y., Cai, S., Espejo, A., Bedford, M. T. & Walker, C. L. 14-3-3 interacts with the tumor suppressor tuberin at Akt phosphorylation site(s). Cancer Res.62, 6475–6480 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shumway, S. D., Li, Y. & Xiong, Y. 14-3-3β binds to and negatively regulates the tuberous sclerosis complex 2 (TSC2) tumor suppressor gene product, tuberin. J. Biol. Chem.278, 2089–2092 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Radimerski, T., Montagne, J., Hemmings-Mieszczak, M. & Thomas, G. Lethality of Drosophila lacking TSC tumor suppressor function rescued by reducing dS6K signaling. Genes Dev.16, 2627–2632 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jaeschke, A. et al. Tuberous sclerosis complex tumor suppressor-mediated S6 kinase inhibition by phosphatidylinositide-3-OH kinase is mTOR independent. J. Cell Biol.159, 217–224 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Inoki, K., Zhu, T. & Guan, K. L. TSC2 mediates cellular energy response to control cell growth and survival. Cell115, 577–590 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wienecke, R., Konig, A. & DeClue, J. E. Identification of tuberin, the tuberous sclerosis-2 product. Tuberin possesses specific Rap1GAP activity. J. Biol. Chem.270, 16409–16414 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Xiao, G. H., Shoarinejad, F., Jin, F., Golemis, E. A. & Yeung, R. S. The tuberous sclerosis 2 gene product, tuberin, functions as a Rab5 GTPase activating protein (GAP) in modulating endocytosis. J. Biol. Chem.272, 6097–6100 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Astrinidis, A. et al. Tuberin, the tuberous sclerosis complex 2 tumor suppressor gene product, regulates Rho activation, cell adhesion and migration. Oncogene21, 8470–8476 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Zhang, Y. et al. Rheb is a direct target of the tuberous sclerosis tumour suppressor proteins. Nature Cell Biol.5, 578–581 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Tee, A. R., Manning, B. D., Roux, P. P., Cantley, L. C. & Blenis, J. Tuberous sclerosis complex gene products, Tuberin and Hamartin, control mTOR signaling by acting as a GTPase-activating protein complex toward Rheb. Curr. Biol.13, 1259–1268 (2003). References 55 and 56 show that the small GTPase RHEB is a direct target of TSC2 GAP activity bothin vivoandin vitro. These studies identify RHEB as a molecular target of the TSC tumour suppressors. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Stocker, H. et al. Rheb is an essential regulator of S6K in controlling cell growth in Drosophila. Nature Cell Biol.5, 559–565 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Saucedo, L. J. et al. Rheb promotes cell growth as a component of the insulin/TOR signalling network. Nature Cell Biol.5, 566–571 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Volarevic, S. & Thomas, G. Role of S6 phosphorylation and S6 kinase in cell growth. Prog. Nucleic Acid Res. Mol. Biol.65, 101–127 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shah, O. J., Anthony, J. C., Kimball, S. R. & Jefferson, L. S. 4E-BP1 and S6K1: translational integration sites for nutritional and hormonal information in muscle. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab.279, E715–E729 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Pullen, N. et al. Phosphorylation and activation of p70s6k by PDK1. Science279, 707–710 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dennis, P. B., Pullen, N., Kozma, S. C. & Thomas, G. The principal rapamycin-sensitive p70(s6k) phosphorylation sites, T-229 and T-389, are differentially regulated by rapamycin-insensitive kinase kinases. Mol. Cell Biol.16, 6242–6251 (1996). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Burnett, P. E., Barrow, R. K., Cohen, N. A., Snyder, S. H. & Sabatini, D. M. RAFT1 phosphorylation of the translational regulators p70 S6 kinase and 4E-BP1. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA95, 1432–1437 (1998). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
von Manteuffel, S. R. et al. The insulin-induced signalling pathway leading to S6 and initiation factor 4E binding protein 1 phosphorylation bifurcates at a rapamycin-sensitive point immediately upstream of p70s6k. Mol. Cell Biol.17, 5426–5436 (1997). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Phin, S., Kupferwasser, D., Lam, J. & Lee-Fruman, K. K. Mutational analysis of ribosomal S6 kinase 2 shows differential regulation of its kinase activity from that of ribosomal S6 kinase 1. Biochem. J.373, 583–591 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Peterson, R. T., Desai, B. N., Hardwick, J. S. & Schreiber, S. L. Protein phosphatase 2A interacts with the 70-kDa S6 kinase and is activated by inhibition of FKBP12-rapamycinassociated protein. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA96, 4438–4442 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Duvel, K., Santhanam, A., Garrett, S., Schneper, L. & Broach, J. R. Multiple roles of Tap42 in mediating rapamycin-induced transcriptional changes in yeast. Mol. Cell11, 1467–1478 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Schmelzle, T., Beck, T., Martin, D. E. & Hall, M. N. Activation of the RAS/cyclic AMP pathway suppresses a TOR deficiency in yeast. Mol. Cell Biol.24, 338–351 (2004). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Dennis, P. B., Fumagalli, S. & Thomas, G. Target of rapamycin (TOR): balancing the opposing forces of protein synthesis and degradation. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev.9, 49–54 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Murata, K., Wu, J. & Brautigan, D. L. B cell receptor-associated protein α4 displays rapamycin-sensitive binding directly to the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA94, 10624–10629 (1997). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Inui, S. et al. Ig receptor binding protein 1 (α4) is associated with a rapamycin-sensitive signal transduction in lymphocytes through direct binding to the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 2A. Blood92, 539–546 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Chen, J., Peterson, R. T. & Schreiber, S. L. α4 associates with protein phosphatases 2A, 4 and 6. Biochim. Biophys. Res. Commun.247, 827–832 (1998). CAS Google Scholar
Kloeker, S. et al. Parallel purification of three catalytic subunits of the protein serine/threonine phosphatase 2A family (PP2A(C), PP4(C), and PP6(C)) and analysis of the interaction of PP2A(C) with α4 protein. Protein Expr. Purif.31, 19–33 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Jefferies, H. B. et al. Rapamycin suppresses 5′TOP mRNA translation through inhibition of p70s6k. EMBO J.16, 3693–3704 (1997). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Terada, N. et al. Rapamycin selectively inhibits translation of mRNAs encoding elongation factors and ribosomal proteins. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA91, 11477–11481 (1994). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jefferies, H. B., Reinhard, C., Kozma, S. C. & Thomas, G. Rapamycin selectively represses translation of the 'polypyrimidine tract' mRNA family. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA91, 4441–4445 (1994). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tang, H. et al. Amino acid-induced translation of TOP mRNAs is fully dependent on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mediated signaling, is partially inhibited by rapamycin, and is independent of S6K1 and rpS6 phosphorylation. Mol. Cell Biol.21, 8671–8683 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Stolovich, M. et al. Transduction of growth or mitogenic signals into translational activation of TOP mRNAs is fully reliant on the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase-mediated pathway but requires neither S6K1 nor rpS6 phosphorylation. Mol. Cell Biol.22, 8101–8113 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Pende, M. et al. Hypoinsulinaemia, glucose intolerance and diminished β-cell size in S6K1-deficient mice. Nature408, 994–997 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wang, X. et al. Regulation of elongation factor 2 kinase by p90RSK1 and p70 S6 kinase. EMBO J.20, 4370–4379 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Brunn, G. J. et al. Phosphorylation of the translational repressor PHAS-I by the mammalian target of rapamycin. Science277, 99–101 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hara, K. et al. Regulation of eIF-4E BP1 phosphorylation by mTOR. J. Biol. Chem.272, 26457–26463 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gingras, A. C. et al. Regulation of 4E-BP1 phosphorylation: a novel two-step mechanism. Genes Dev.13, 1422–1437 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Yang, D. Q. & Kastan, M. B. Participation of ATM in insulin signalling through phosphorylation of eIF-4E-binding protein 1. Nature Cell Biol.2, 893–898 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lin, T. A. et al. PHAS-I as a link between mitogen-activated protein kinase and translation initiation. Science266, 653–656 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mothe-Satney, I. et al. Mammalian target of rapamycin-dependent phosphorylation of PHAS-I in four (S/T)P sites detected by phospho-specific antibodies. J. Biol. Chem.275, 33836–33843 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mothe-Satney, I., Yang, D., Fadden, P., Haystead, T. A. & Lawrence, J. C. Jr. Multiple mechanisms control phosphorylation of PHAS-I in five (S/T)P sites that govern translational repression. Mol. Cell. Biol.20, 3558–3567 (2000). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Gingras, A. C. et al. Hierarchical phosphorylation of the translation inhibitor 4E-BP1. Genes Dev.15, 2852–2864 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Rosenwald, I. B. et al. Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E regulates expression of cyclin D1 at transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels. J. Biol. Chem.270, 21176–21180 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Hashemolhosseini, S. et al. Rapamycin inhibition of the G1 to S transition is mediated by effects on cyclin D1 mRNA and protein stability. J. Biol. Chem.273, 14424–14429 (1998). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shantz, L. M. & Pegg, A. E. Overproduction of ornithine decarboxylase caused by relief of translational repression is associated with neoplastic transformation. Cancer Res.54, 2313–2316 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Fingar, D. C., Salama, S., Tsou, C., Harlow, E. & Blenis, J. Mammalian cell size is controlled by mTOR and its downstream targets S6K1 and 4EBP1/eIF4E. Genes Dev.16, 1472–1487 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Montagne, J. et al. Drosophila S6 kinase: a regulator of cell size. Science285, 2126–2129 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kozma, S. C. & Thomas, G. Regulation of cell size in growth, development and human disease: PI3K, PKB and S6K. Bioessays24, 65–71 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Shima, H. et al. Disruption of the p70s6k/p85s6k gene reveals a small mouse phenotype and a new functional S6 kinase. EMBO J.17, 6649–6659 (1998). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Volarevic, S. et al. Proliferation, but not growth, blocked by conditional deletion of 40S ribosomal protein S6. Science288, 2045–2047 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Dilling, M. B. et al. 4E-binding proteins, the suppressors of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E, are down-regulated in cells with acquired or intrinsic resistance to rapamycin. J. Biol. Chem.277, 13907–13917 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Jiang, H., Coleman, J., Miskimins, R. & Miskimins, W. K. Expression of constitutively active 4EBP-1 enhances p27Kip1 expression and inhibits proliferation of MCF7 breast cancer cells. Cancer Cell Int.3, 2 (2003). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Law, B. K. et al. Rapamycin potentiates transforming growth factor β-induced growth arrest in nontransformed, oncogene-transformed, and human cancer cells. Mol. Cell. Biol.22, 8184–8198 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Nourse, J. et al. Interleukin-2-mediated elimination of the p27Kip1 cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor prevented by rapamycin. Nature372, 570–573 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Barata, J. T., Cardoso, A. A., Nadler, L. M. & Boussiotis, V. A. Interleukin-7 promotes survival and cell cycle progression of T-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells by down-regulating the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27kip1. Blood98, 1524–1531 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kato, J. Y., Matsuoka, M., Polyak, K., Massague, J. & Sherr, C. J. Cyclic AMP-induced G1 phase arrest mediated by an inhibitor (p27Kip1) of cyclin-dependent kinase 4 activation. Cell79, 487–496 (1994). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Huang, S. et al. p53/p21CIP1 cooperate in enforcing rapamycin-induced G(1) arrest and determine the cellular response to rapamycin. Cancer Res.61, 3373–3381 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lieberthal, W. et al. Rapamycin impairs recovery from acute renal failure: role of cell-cycle arrest and apoptosis of tubular cells. Am. J. Physiol. Renal Physiol.281, F693–F706 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Thimmaiah, K. N. et al. Insulin-like growth factor I-mediated protection from rapamycin-induced apoptosis is independent of Ras–Erk1–Erk2 and phosphatidylinositol 3′-kinase–Akt signaling pathways. Cancer Res.63, 364–374 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Woltman, A. M. et al. Rapamycin specifically interferes with GM-CSF signaling in human dendritic cells, leading to apoptosis via increased p27KIP1 expression. Blood101, 1439–1445 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kenerson, H. L., Aicher, L. D., True, L. D. & Yeung, R. S. Activated mammalian target of rapamycin pathway in the pathogenesis of tuberous sclerosis complex renal tumors. Cancer Res.62, 5645–5650 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Huang, S. et al. Sustained activation of the JNK cascade and rapamycin-induced apoptosis are suppressed by p53/p21Cip1. Mol. Cell11, 1491–1501 (2003). This work shows that, in the absence of IGF1, prolonged activation of the ASK1–JNK pathway induced apoptosis in response to rapamycin-mediated inhibition of TOR. In the presence of wild-type p53, in a pathway dependent on WAF1, ASK1–JNK activation was transient and apoptosis was suppressed. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Vivanco, I. & Sawyers, C. L. The phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase AKT pathway in human cancer. Nature Rev. Cancer2, 489–501 (2002). CAS Google Scholar
Luo, J., Manning, B. D. & Cantley, L. C. Targeting the PI3K–Akt pathway in human cancer: rationale and promise. Cancer Cell4, 257–262 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Woods, A. et al. LKB1 is the upstream kinase in the AMP-activated protein kinase cascade. Curr. Biol.13, 2004–2008 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nakamura, N. et al. Forkhead transcription factors are critical effectors of cell death and cell cycle arrest downstream of PTEN. Mol. Cell Biol.20, 8969–8982 (2000). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Neshat, M. S. et al. Enhanced sensitivity of PTEN-deficient tumors to inhibition of FRAP/mTOR. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98, 10314–10319 (2001). This work first identified hypersensitivity to rapamycins in cells lacking the dual phosphatase PTEN. These results provided the initial rationale for testing TOR inhibitors inPTEN-null human cancers. CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Podsypanina, K. et al. An inhibitor of mTOR reduces neoplasia and normalizes p70/S6 kinase activity in Pten+/− mice. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA98, 10320–10325 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Shi, Y. et al. Enhanced sensitivity of multiple myeloma cells containing PTEN mutations to CCI-779. Cancer Res.62, 5027–5034 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Mutter, G. L. et al. Altered PTEN expression as a diagnostic marker for the earliest endometrial precancers. J. Natl Cancer Inst.92, 924–930 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Yu, K. et al. mTOR, a novel target in breast cancer: the effect of CCI-779, an mTOR inhibitor, in preclinical models of breast cancer. Endocr. Relat. Cancer8, 249–258 (2001). PubMed Google Scholar
Zhou, C., Gehrig, P. A., Whang, Y. E. & Boggess, J. F. Rapamycin inhibits telomerase activity by decreasing the hTERT mRNA level in endometrial cancer cells. Mol. Cancer Ther.2, 789–795 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Cheadle, J. P., Reeve, M. P., Sampson, J. R. & Kwiatkowski, D. J. Molecular genetic advances in tuberous sclerosis. Hum. Genet.107, 97–114 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Brugarolas, J. B., Vazquez, F., Reddy, A., Sellers, W. R. & Kaelin, W. G. Jr. TSC2 regulates VEGF through mTOR-dependent and-independent pathways. Cancer Cell4, 147–158 (2003). This study found that TSC2 regulates VEGF through TOR-dependent and -independent pathways. Rapamycin normalized hypoxia-inducible factor levels inTSC2−/−cells, but only partially downregulated VEGF in this setting. The results imply a TOR-independent link between TSC2 loss and VEGF. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Treins, C., Giorgetti-Peraldi, S., Murdaca, J., Semenza, G. L. & Van Obberghen, E. Insulin stimulates hypoxia-inducible factor 1 through a phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/target of rapamycin-dependent signaling pathway. J. Biol. Chem.277, 27975–27981 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Zhong, H. et al. Modulation of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α expression by the epidermal growth factor/phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/PTEN/AKT/FRAP pathway in human prostate cancer cells: implications for tumor angiogenesis and therapeutics. Cancer Res.60, 1541–1545 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Jiang, B. H. et al. Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase signaling controls levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1. Cell Growth Differ.12, 363–369 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Laughner, E., Taghavi, P., Chiles, K., Mahon, P. C. & Semenza, G. L. HER2 (neu) signaling increases the rate of hypoxia-inducible factor 1α (HIF-1α) synthesis: novel mechanism for HIF-1-mediated vascular endothelial growth factor expression. Mol. Cell. Biol.21, 3995–4004 (2001). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Mayerhofer, M., Valent, P., Sperr, W. R., Griffin, J. D. & Sillaber, C. BCR/ABL induces expression of vascular endothelial growth factor and its transcriptional activator, hypoxia inducible factor-1alpha, through a pathway involving phosphoinositide 3-kinase and the mammalian target of rapamycin. Blood100, 3767–3775 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
El-Hashemite, N., Walker, V., Zhang, H. & Kwiatkowski, D. J. Loss of Tsc1 or Tsc2 induces vascular endothelial growth factor production through mammalian target of rapamycin. Cancer Res.63, 5173–5177 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Guba, M. et al. Rapamycin inhibits primary and metastatic tumor growth by antiangiogenesis: involvement of vascular endothelial growth factor. Nature Med.8, 128–135 (2002). It was found that rapamycin inhibited metastatic tumour growth and angiogenesis inin vivomouse models. Rapamycin showed anti-angiogenic activities linked to a decrease in production of Vegf and to a markedly inhibited response of vascular endothelial cells to stimulation by Vegf. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Humar, R., Kiefer, F. N., Berns, H., Resink, T. J. & Battegay, E. J. Hypoxia enhances vascular cell proliferation and angiogenesis in vitro via rapamycin (mTOR)-dependent signaling. FASEB J.16, 771–780 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gromov, P. S., Madsen, P., Tomerup, N. & Celis, J. E. A novel approach for expression cloning of small GTPases: identification, tissue distribution and chromosome mapping of the human homolog of rheb. FEBS Lett.377, 221–226 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kwon, H. K. et al. Constitutive activation of p70S6k in cancer cells. Arch. Pharm. Res.25, 685–690 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Salh, B., Marotta, A., Wagey, R., Sayed, M. & Pelech, S. Dysregulation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase and downstream effectors in human breast cancer. Int. J. Cancer98, 148–154 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wong, A. S. et al. Coexpression of hepatocyte growth factor-Met: an early step in ovarian carcinogenesis? Oncogene20, 1318–1328 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Lazaris-Karatzas, A. & Sonenberg, N. The mRNA 5′ cap-binding protein, eIF-4E, cooperates with v-myc or E1A in the transformation of primary rodent fibroblasts. Mol. Cell. Biol.12, 1234–1238 (1992). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lazaris-Karatzas, A. et al. Ras mediates translation initiation factor 4E-induced malignant transformation. Genes Dev.6, 1631–1642 (1992). Previous work had shown that overexpression ofeIF4Etransformed rodent cells. In this paper, it is shown that such overexpression upregulates Ras and that transformation is Ras-dependent. Together, these studies indicate thateIF4Eis an oncogene. CASPubMed Google Scholar
Abid, M. R., Li, Y., Anthony, C. & De Benedetti, A. Translational regulation of ribonucleotide reductase by eukaryotic initiation factor 4E links protein synthesis to the control of DNA replication. J. Biol. Chem.274, 35991–35998 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Chabes, A. et al. Survival of DNA damage in yeast directly depends on increased dNTP levels allowed by relaxed feedback inhibition of ribonucleotide reductase. Cell112, 391–401 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Topisirovic, I. et al. The proline-rich homeodomain protein, PRH, is a tissue-specific inhibitor of eIF4E-dependent cyclin D1 mRNA transport and growth. EMBO J.22, 689–703 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Rosenwald, I. B. Upregulated expression of the genes encoding translation initiation factors eIF-4E and eIF-2α in transformed cells. Cancer Lett.102, 113–123 (1996). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Miyagi, Y. et al. Elevated levels of eukaryotic translation initiation factor eIF-4E, mRNA in a broad spectrum of transformed cell lines. Cancer Lett.91, 247–252 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Graff, J. R. et al. Reduction of translation initiation factor 4E decreases the malignancy of ras-transformed cloned rat embryo fibroblasts. Int. J. Cancer60, 255–263 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rinker-Schaeffer, C. W., Graff, J. R., De Benedetti, A., Zimmer, S. G. & Rhoads, R. E. Decreasing the level of translation initiation factor 4E with antisense RNA causes reversal of ras-mediated transformation and tumorigenesis of cloned rat embryo fibroblasts. Int. J. Cancer55, 841–847 (1993). CASPubMed Google Scholar
DeFatta, R. J., Nathan, C. A. & De Benedetti, A. Antisense RNA to eIF4E suppresses oncogenic properties of a head and neck squamous cell carcinoma cell line. Laryngoscope110, 928–933 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wang, S. et al. Expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factors 4E and 2α correlates with the progression of thyroid carcinoma. Thyroid11, 1101–1107 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rosenwald, I. B., Hutzler, M. J., Wang, S., Savas, L. & Fraire, A. E. Expression of eukaryotic translation initiation factors 4E and 2α is increased frequently in bronchioloalveolar but not in squamous cell carcinomas of the lung. Cancer92, 2164–2171 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wang, S. et al. Expression of the eukaryotic translation initiation factors 4E and 2α in non-Hodgkin's lymphomas. Am. J. Pathol.155, 247–255 (1999). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Bauer, C. et al. Overexpression of the eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4G-1) in squamous cell lung carcinoma. Int. J. Cancer98, 181–185 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Fukuchi-Shimogori, T. et al. Malignant transformation by overproduction of translation initiation factor eIF4G. Cancer Res.57, 5041–5044 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Martin, M. E. et al. 4E binding protein 1 expression is inversely correlated to the progression of gastrointestinal cancers. Int. J. Biochem. Cell Biol.32, 633–642 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Nomura, M. et al. Involvement of the Akt/mTOR pathway on EGF-induced cell transformation. Mol. Carcinog.38, 25–32 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Skorski, T. et al. Transformation of hematopoietic cells by BCR/ABL requires activation of a PI-3k/Akt-dependent pathway. EMBO J.16, 6151–6161 (1997). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Ly, C., Arechiga, A. F., Melo, J. V., Walsh, C. M. & Ong, S. T. Bcr–Abl kinase modulates the translation regulators ribosomal protein S6 and 4E-BP1 in chronic myelogenous leukemia cells via the mammalian target of rapamycin. Cancer Res.63, 5716–5722 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Gera, J. F. et al. AKT activity determines sensitivity to mTOR inhibitors by regulating cyclin D1 and c-myc expression. J. Biol. Chem.279, 2737–2746 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Louro, I. D. et al. The zinc finger protein GLI induces cellular sensitivity to the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin. Cell Growth Differ.10, 503–516 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Pietenpol, J. A. et al. TGF-β 1 inhibition of c-myc transcription and growth in keratinocytes is abrogated by viral transforming proteins with pRB binding domains. Cell61, 777–785 (1990). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Song, K., Cornelius, S. C., Reiss, M. & Danielpour, D. Insulin-like growth factor-I inhibits transcriptional responses of transforming growth factor-β by phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt-dependent suppression of the activation of Smad3 but not Smad2. J. Biol. Chem.278, 38342–38351 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Douros, J. & Suffness, M. New antitumor substances of natural origin. Cancer Treat. Rev.8, 63–87 (1981). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Houchens, D. P., Ovejera, A. A., Riblet, S. M. & Slagel, D. E. Human brain tumor xenografts in nude mice as a chemotherapy model. Eur. J. Cancer Clin. Oncol.19, 799–805 (1983). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Eng, C. P., Sehgal, S. N. & Vezina, C. Activity of rapamycin (AY-22,989) against transplanted tumors. J. Antibiot.37, 1231–1237 (1984). CAS Google Scholar
Dancey, J. E. Clinical development of mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitors. Hematol. Oncol. Clin. North Am.16, 1101–1114 (2002). PubMed Google Scholar
Atkins, M. B. et al. Randomized phase II study of multiple dose levels of CCI–779, a novel mTOR kinase inhibitor, in patients with advanced refractory renal cell carcinoma. J. Clin. Oncol.22, 909–918 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Boulay, A. et al. Antitumor efficacy of intermittent treatment schedules with the rapamycin derivative RAD001 correlates with prolonged inactivation of ribosomal protein S6 kinase 1 in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Cancer Res.64, 252–261 (2004). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Peralba, J. M. et al. Pharmacodynamic evaluation of CCI-779, an inhibitor of mTOR, in cancer patients. Clin. Cancer Res.9, 2887–2892 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Huang, S., Bjornsti, M. A. & Houghton, P. J. Rapamycins: mechanism of action and cellular resistance. Cancer Biol. Ther.2, 222–232 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Peng, T., Golub, T. R. & Sabatini, D. M. The immunosuppressant rapamycin mimics a starvation-like signal distinct from amino acid and glucose deprivation. Mol. Cell. Biol.22, 5575–5584 (2002). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Rosenwald, A. et al. The proliferation gene expression signature is a quantitative integrator of oncogenic events that predicts survival in mantle cell lymphoma. Cancer Cell3, 185–197 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Liang, A., Lei, T., LuYing, Z. & YuPing, G. The expression of proto-oncogene eIF4E in laryngeal squamous cell carcinoma. Laryngoscope113, 1238–1243 (2003). PubMed Google Scholar
Nathan, C. A. et al. Molecular analysis of surgical margins in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma patients. Laryngoscope112, 2129–2140 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Haydon, M. S., Googe, J. D., Sorrells, D. S., Ghali, G. E. & Li, B. D. Progression of eIF4e gene amplification and overexpression in benign and malignant tumors of the head and neck. Cancer88, 2803–2810 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Sorrells, D. L., Meschonat, C., Black, D. & Li, B. D. Pattern of amplification and overexpression of the eukaryotic initiation factor 4E gene in solid tumor. J. Surg. Res.85, 37–42 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Seki, N. et al. Expression of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E in atypical adenomatous hyperplasia and adenocarcinoma of the human peripheral lung. Clin. Cancer Res.8, 3046–3053 (2002). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Kerekatte, V. et al. The proto-oncogene/translation factor eIF4E: a survey of its expression in breast carcinomas. Int. J. Cancer64, 27–31 (1995). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Li, B. D. et al. Prospective study of eukaryotic initiation factor 4E protein elevation and breast cancer outcome. Ann. Surg.235, 732–738 (2002). PubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Scott, P. A. et al. Differential expression of vascular endothelial growth factor mRNA vs protein isoform expression in human breast cancer and relationship to eIF-4E. Br. J. Cancer77, 2120–2128 (1998). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Nathan, C. A. et al. Elevated expression of eIF4E and FGF-2 isoforms during vascularization of breast carcinomas. Oncogene15, 1087–1094 (1997). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Berkel, H. J., Turbat-Herrera, E. A., Shi, R. & de Benedetti, A. Expression of the translation initiation factor eIF4E in the polyp-cancer sequence in the colon. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev.10, 663–666 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Rosenwald, I. B. et al. Upregulation of protein synthesis initiation factor eIF-4E is an early event during colon carcinogenesis. Oncogene18, 2507–2517 (1999). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Crew, J. P. et al. Eukaryotic initiation factor-4E in superficial and muscle invasive bladder cancer and its correlation with vascular endothelial growth factor expression and tumour progression. Br. J. Cancer82, 161–166 (2000). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Chen, Y., Zheng, Y. & Foster, D. A. Phospholipase D confers rapamycin resistance in human breast cancer cells. Oncogene22, 3937–3942 (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wang, L., Rolfe, M. & Proud, C. G. Ca2+-independent protein kinase C activity is required for α1-adrenergic-receptor-mediated regulation of ribosomal protein S6 kinases in adult cardiomyocytes. Biochem. J.373, 603–611 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lim, H. K. et al. Phosphatidic acid regulates systemic inflammatory responses by modulating the Akt-mammalian target of rapamycin–p70 S6 kinase 1 pathway. J. Biol. Chem.5, 5 (2003). Google Scholar
Dennis, P. B. et al. Mammalian TOR: a homeostatic ATP sensor. Science294, 1102–1105 (2001). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Meijer, A. J. Amino acids as regulators and components of nonproteinogenic pathways. J. Nutr.133, 2057S–2062S (2003). CASPubMed Google Scholar
Wang, L., Fraley, C. D., Faridi, J., Kornberg, A. & Roth, R. A. Inorganic polyphosphate stimulates mammalian TOR, a kinase involved in the proliferation of mammary cancer cells. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA100, 11249–11254 (2003). CASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Arsham, A. M., Howell, J. J. & Simon, M. C. A novel hypoxia-inducible factor-independent hypoxic response regulating mammalian target of rapamycin and its targets. J. Biol. Chem.278, 29655–29660 (2003). It is shown that hypoxia rapidly and reversibly triggers hypophosphorylation of TOR and its downstream effectors. Hypoxic regulation of TOR is dominant to activation through several distinct signalling pathways and implicates the role of TOR in sensing O2status of cells. CASPubMed Google Scholar