Meir Edrey | University of Haifa (original) (raw)
Papers by Meir Edrey
Kabri III: The 2013-2019 Seasons, 2023
This chapter presents the analyses of the Iron Age ceramic assemblages unearthed in Area D-West o... more This chapter presents the analyses of the Iron Age ceramic assemblages unearthed in Area D-West of the lower settlement at Kabri. The pottery was found in a large structure that was only partly exposed above the Middle Bronze Age palace, as well as in large pits that had cut into Middle Bronze strata. Both the structure and pits date to the Iron Age. The evidence indicates that there were two phases of settlement at Kabri during this period, Phase IIc dated to the Iron Age IIA and Phase IIb-a dated to the Iron Age IIC, with a settlement gap of nearly a century in between. The finds from this season of excavation further support and strengthen earlier studies conducted on Iron Age Kabri
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Kabri III: The 2013-2019 Seasons, 2023
During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains were unearthed adjacent to the M... more During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains were unearthed adjacent to the Middle Bronze Age palace in Area D-West. These remains represent part of the lower town of Iron Age Kabri and consist of a partly exposed structure and several large pits. This chapter discusses the stratigraphy of these remains, their phasing, and their possible function. It is suggested that the lower settlement functioned as a fort-village that could not exist without the protection of the fort, and a possible explanation is offered for the occurrence of the many large shallow pits at the site
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JOURNAL OF EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE STUDIES, 2023
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JOURNAL OF EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE STUDIES, 2023
The Achaemenid rule is often perceived by modern scholars as religiously tolerant and nonintrusiv... more The Achaemenid rule is often perceived by modern scholars as religiously tolerant and nonintrusive, mainly due to the biblical narrative and the Cyrus decree. However, even if the Achaemenids did not impose their beliefs and religious ideology on their subordinates, Achaemenid
and Zoroastrian infl uences seem to have seeped into the religion and cultic practices of peoples under their hegemony. In the southern Levant, dramatic changes to Phoenician cult practices occurred during the Persian period, some of which are consistent with principals of the Zoroastrian faith. Although written sources suggest the Achaemenids did interfere with the cultic practices of various peoples, it seems unlikely that they forced their system of beliefs on the Phoenicians, with whom they
maintained good relations. It is, however, more than possible that as part of those warm relations, certain Zoroastrian ideas diff used into Phoenician society bringing about changes to the Phoenicians’ cultic practices.
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Cities, Monuments and Objects in the Roman and Byzantine Levant. Studies in Honour of Gabi Mazor. Edited by Walid Atrash, Andrew Overman, Peter Gendelman, 2022
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Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 2021
This article deals with the results of the second excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Excav... more This article deals with the results of the second excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Excavation Project at Tell Iżṫabbā, which is the location of the Seleucid-period founded town of Nysa (Scythopolis). The second excavation campaign, which forms the third season of our joint German-Israeli research project, was carried out in the month of February 2020; the focus of the season was an excavation in a new area (Area D) located between the previously opened areas of excavations of the Israel Antiquities Authority (Area Z) and ours (Area C) in the southeastern terrace of Tell Iżṫabbā (East). As in the previous seasons, the excavated evidence sheds light on the Seleucid-period foundation site and its Hasmonean destruction and also produces records on earlier (mainly Early Bronze Age) occupations. Most remarkable was the exploration of a late antique 'Podium Building' and the examination of Roman architectural decorative items providing insights into the post-Seleucid occupation history of the site.
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Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 2021
During a salvage excavation conducted in the Atarot Industrial Area, located north of Jerusalem, ... more During a salvage excavation conducted in the Atarot Industrial Area, located north of Jerusalem, a large Frankish period settlement was unearthed. This settlement has all the hallmarks of a European style street-village, and it is more than likely it was one of the agricultural villages controlled and operated by the Church with the blessing of the royal court in Jerusalem. The Church had settled such villages with free-men of Frankish decent during the 12th cent. C.E. who were awarded with agricultural land in return for regular tribute, mainly in the form of agricultural produce and other by-products such as wine. The Frankish settlement seems to have been short-lived, yet after its abandonment, at least some of the village’s structures remained in use until the 20th cent. C.E. The discovery and excavation of this previously unknown Frankish settlement adds valuable information to our knowledge of the agricultural hinterland of Jerusalem during the Frankish period, the establishment of well-organized villages in the Levant, and their usage after the fall of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem.
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Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 2020
This article deals with the results of the first excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Tell I... more This article deals with the results of the first excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Tell Iż ṫ abbā Excavation Project, which is the location of the Seleucid-period founded town of Nysa (Scythopolis). The first and second seasons of our joint German-Israeli research project were carried out in the months of February and September 2019; the focus of the February season was a survey and a geophysical pro-spection of the site. Based on the February season results and preliminarily published earlier works on the site, three areas of archaeological excavation were dug (A, B and C). The excavated evidence sheds light on the Seleucid-period foundation site and its Hasmonean destruction and also produces records on earlier (Early Bronze Age) and later (Byzantine) occupations. Hellenistic domestic architecture shows the predominance of local building traditions, while the unearthed finds show a mix of local and imported goods from the eastern Mediterranean.
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The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology , 2020
The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels foun... more The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels found on the sunken kurkar ridge off the coast of the western Galilee. Despite its importance to the understanding of both maritime activities and cultic practices, the site has never been fully published. Only a part of the figurine assemblage has been analysed in the past, and the associated ceramic evidence has only been presented in limited preliminary reports. This article presents for the first time the evaluation of the entire ceramic assemblage extracted from the Shavei Zion underwater site, as part of a comprehensive publication project.
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Internation Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 2020
The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels foun... more The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels found on the sunken kurkar ridge off the coast of the western Galilee. Despite its importance to the understanding of both maritime activities and cultic practices, the site has never been fully published. Only a part of the figurine assemblage has been analysed in the past, and the associated ceramic evidence has only been presented in limited preliminary reports. This article presents for the first time the evaluation of the entire ceramic assemblage extracted from the Shavei Zion underwater site, as part of a comprehensive publication project.
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Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2020
During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains were found cutting into the west... more During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains
were found cutting into the western part of the Middle Bronze
Age palace. These remains consisted of a segment of a large
structure and a series of sizable pits. Similar Iron Age remains
were unearthed during previous soundings in Areas D and F of
the excavation and were loosely dated to the Iron Age II. The
ceramic assemblage from these soundings demonstrated a
disproportionate number of imports and cooking pots, which
prompted the excavators to suggest that the lower settlement
was engaged in the processing of agricultural products connected
to the nearby forts located elsewhere on the tell. A recent reexamination of the pottery from the previous excavations suggest
that the forts could have only existed during the Iron Age IIA and
IIC. Our examination of the pottery indicates that the imports can
be dated to the Iron Age IIA, while the large number of cooking
pots should mostly be dated to the Iron Age IIC. We would
therefore like to suggest a new interpretation for the function of
the lower settlement at Kabri during the Iron Age II in relation to
the forts and the political reality in the Galilee at that time.
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Israel Exploration Journal, 2018
During the 1963 excavation season at Tel Achziv, directed by M.W. Prausnitz, three cist tombs wer... more During the 1963 excavation season at Tel Achziv, directed by M.W.
Prausnitz, three cist tombs were unearthed in Area E, on the eastern part of the
mound. These tombs, built of large roughly-hewn stone blocks, previously dated
to the Iron Age IB, display a rich material culture, consisting of pottery vessels,
weapons, jewellery and other small finds. To date, only parts of the assemblage
of these tombs have been published in preliminary publications. Here, for the
first time, we consider the entirety of the tomb assemblages, including ceramic,
metal and other finds, as well as tomb architecture and human remains. We
maintain that the emerging picture points to a more complex narrative of the
Iron Age settlement at Achziv and its population than previously thought.
Rather than dating to the Iron IB, they can be related to the Iron IIA and to the
existence of an elite manifesting its local identity through burial practices that
reflect long-lasting coastal cultural traditions. At the same time, a new date
for the resettlement of Achziv is offered and connected to processes of Tyrian
consolidation of power, accompanied by the establishment of administrative
control in parts of the western Galilee and the Akko Valley in the Iron Age IIA.
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New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region, 2018
Between March-November of 2016, the impressive remains of a large Medieval settlement were uneart... more Between March-November of 2016, the impressive remains of a large Medieval settlement were unearthed in the Atarot Industrial Area, Jerusalem. The settlement type, architecture and its decorative style, pottery, and written evidence all suggest that the settlement known as Khirbet er-Ram, should be identified with Ramathes (Ramatha), the Frankish village founded in the 12th century CE by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and settled by free Frankish people. The discovery of the village at er-Ram adds to our knowledge of the agricultural hinterland of Crusader Jerusalem and the establishment of well-planned rural villages during the 12th century CE in the Levant.
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Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2018
Though our knowledge of Iron Age Phoenician cultic architecture is quite limited, the available d... more Though our knowledge of Iron Age Phoenician cultic architecture is
quite limited, the available data suggests that pre-Classical
Phoenician temples followed a similar plan which displayed
several unique architectural features. This plan originated from a
long held, Bronze Age, Canaanite tradition which became
especially prominent along the northern Levantine coast from the
Middle Bronze Age II, appearing alongside other temple plans.
This article aims to demonstrate that during the Iron Age and
most of the Persian period, this temple plan became the
predominant temple type in Phoenicia and its dependencies. It
was only during the late Persian period, that a drastic change
occurred, and this millennia-old plan was abandoned in favor of
other temple types. Nevertheless, it appears that despite this
seemingly radical change, the most notable feature of the
traditional plan was preserved.
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Salvage Excavation Reports, 2017
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Salvage Excavation Reports, 2017
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A Jew's Best Friend? The Image of the Dog throughout Jewish History, 2013
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Tel Aviv: Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of …, Jan 1, 2008
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Kabri III: The 2013-2019 Seasons, 2023
This chapter presents the analyses of the Iron Age ceramic assemblages unearthed in Area D-West o... more This chapter presents the analyses of the Iron Age ceramic assemblages unearthed in Area D-West of the lower settlement at Kabri. The pottery was found in a large structure that was only partly exposed above the Middle Bronze Age palace, as well as in large pits that had cut into Middle Bronze strata. Both the structure and pits date to the Iron Age. The evidence indicates that there were two phases of settlement at Kabri during this period, Phase IIc dated to the Iron Age IIA and Phase IIb-a dated to the Iron Age IIC, with a settlement gap of nearly a century in between. The finds from this season of excavation further support and strengthen earlier studies conducted on Iron Age Kabri
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Kabri III: The 2013-2019 Seasons, 2023
During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains were unearthed adjacent to the M... more During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains were unearthed adjacent to the Middle Bronze Age palace in Area D-West. These remains represent part of the lower town of Iron Age Kabri and consist of a partly exposed structure and several large pits. This chapter discusses the stratigraphy of these remains, their phasing, and their possible function. It is suggested that the lower settlement functioned as a fort-village that could not exist without the protection of the fort, and a possible explanation is offered for the occurrence of the many large shallow pits at the site
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JOURNAL OF EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE STUDIES, 2023
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JOURNAL OF EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE STUDIES, 2023
The Achaemenid rule is often perceived by modern scholars as religiously tolerant and nonintrusiv... more The Achaemenid rule is often perceived by modern scholars as religiously tolerant and nonintrusive, mainly due to the biblical narrative and the Cyrus decree. However, even if the Achaemenids did not impose their beliefs and religious ideology on their subordinates, Achaemenid
and Zoroastrian infl uences seem to have seeped into the religion and cultic practices of peoples under their hegemony. In the southern Levant, dramatic changes to Phoenician cult practices occurred during the Persian period, some of which are consistent with principals of the Zoroastrian faith. Although written sources suggest the Achaemenids did interfere with the cultic practices of various peoples, it seems unlikely that they forced their system of beliefs on the Phoenicians, with whom they
maintained good relations. It is, however, more than possible that as part of those warm relations, certain Zoroastrian ideas diff used into Phoenician society bringing about changes to the Phoenicians’ cultic practices.
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Cities, Monuments and Objects in the Roman and Byzantine Levant. Studies in Honour of Gabi Mazor. Edited by Walid Atrash, Andrew Overman, Peter Gendelman, 2022
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Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 2021
This article deals with the results of the second excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Excav... more This article deals with the results of the second excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Excavation Project at Tell Iżṫabbā, which is the location of the Seleucid-period founded town of Nysa (Scythopolis). The second excavation campaign, which forms the third season of our joint German-Israeli research project, was carried out in the month of February 2020; the focus of the season was an excavation in a new area (Area D) located between the previously opened areas of excavations of the Israel Antiquities Authority (Area Z) and ours (Area C) in the southeastern terrace of Tell Iżṫabbā (East). As in the previous seasons, the excavated evidence sheds light on the Seleucid-period foundation site and its Hasmonean destruction and also produces records on earlier (mainly Early Bronze Age) occupations. Most remarkable was the exploration of a late antique 'Podium Building' and the examination of Roman architectural decorative items providing insights into the post-Seleucid occupation history of the site.
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Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 2021
During a salvage excavation conducted in the Atarot Industrial Area, located north of Jerusalem, ... more During a salvage excavation conducted in the Atarot Industrial Area, located north of Jerusalem, a large Frankish period settlement was unearthed. This settlement has all the hallmarks of a European style street-village, and it is more than likely it was one of the agricultural villages controlled and operated by the Church with the blessing of the royal court in Jerusalem. The Church had settled such villages with free-men of Frankish decent during the 12th cent. C.E. who were awarded with agricultural land in return for regular tribute, mainly in the form of agricultural produce and other by-products such as wine. The Frankish settlement seems to have been short-lived, yet after its abandonment, at least some of the village’s structures remained in use until the 20th cent. C.E. The discovery and excavation of this previously unknown Frankish settlement adds valuable information to our knowledge of the agricultural hinterland of Jerusalem during the Frankish period, the establishment of well-organized villages in the Levant, and their usage after the fall of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem.
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Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins, 2020
This article deals with the results of the first excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Tell I... more This article deals with the results of the first excavation campaign of the German-Israeli Tell Iż ṫ abbā Excavation Project, which is the location of the Seleucid-period founded town of Nysa (Scythopolis). The first and second seasons of our joint German-Israeli research project were carried out in the months of February and September 2019; the focus of the February season was a survey and a geophysical pro-spection of the site. Based on the February season results and preliminarily published earlier works on the site, three areas of archaeological excavation were dug (A, B and C). The excavated evidence sheds light on the Seleucid-period foundation site and its Hasmonean destruction and also produces records on earlier (Early Bronze Age) and later (Byzantine) occupations. Hellenistic domestic architecture shows the predominance of local building traditions, while the unearthed finds show a mix of local and imported goods from the eastern Mediterranean.
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The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology , 2020
The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels foun... more The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels found on the sunken kurkar ridge off the coast of the western Galilee. Despite its importance to the understanding of both maritime activities and cultic practices, the site has never been fully published. Only a part of the figurine assemblage has been analysed in the past, and the associated ceramic evidence has only been presented in limited preliminary reports. This article presents for the first time the evaluation of the entire ceramic assemblage extracted from the Shavei Zion underwater site, as part of a comprehensive publication project.
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Internation Journal of Nautical Archaeology, 2020
The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels foun... more The site of Shavei Zion is an enigmatic deposit of hundreds of figurines and ceramic vessels found on the sunken kurkar ridge off the coast of the western Galilee. Despite its importance to the understanding of both maritime activities and cultic practices, the site has never been fully published. Only a part of the figurine assemblage has been analysed in the past, and the associated ceramic evidence has only been presented in limited preliminary reports. This article presents for the first time the evaluation of the entire ceramic assemblage extracted from the Shavei Zion underwater site, as part of a comprehensive publication project.
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Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2020
During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains were found cutting into the west... more During the 2017 excavation season at Tel Kabri, Iron Age remains
were found cutting into the western part of the Middle Bronze
Age palace. These remains consisted of a segment of a large
structure and a series of sizable pits. Similar Iron Age remains
were unearthed during previous soundings in Areas D and F of
the excavation and were loosely dated to the Iron Age II. The
ceramic assemblage from these soundings demonstrated a
disproportionate number of imports and cooking pots, which
prompted the excavators to suggest that the lower settlement
was engaged in the processing of agricultural products connected
to the nearby forts located elsewhere on the tell. A recent reexamination of the pottery from the previous excavations suggest
that the forts could have only existed during the Iron Age IIA and
IIC. Our examination of the pottery indicates that the imports can
be dated to the Iron Age IIA, while the large number of cooking
pots should mostly be dated to the Iron Age IIC. We would
therefore like to suggest a new interpretation for the function of
the lower settlement at Kabri during the Iron Age II in relation to
the forts and the political reality in the Galilee at that time.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Israel Exploration Journal, 2018
During the 1963 excavation season at Tel Achziv, directed by M.W. Prausnitz, three cist tombs wer... more During the 1963 excavation season at Tel Achziv, directed by M.W.
Prausnitz, three cist tombs were unearthed in Area E, on the eastern part of the
mound. These tombs, built of large roughly-hewn stone blocks, previously dated
to the Iron Age IB, display a rich material culture, consisting of pottery vessels,
weapons, jewellery and other small finds. To date, only parts of the assemblage
of these tombs have been published in preliminary publications. Here, for the
first time, we consider the entirety of the tomb assemblages, including ceramic,
metal and other finds, as well as tomb architecture and human remains. We
maintain that the emerging picture points to a more complex narrative of the
Iron Age settlement at Achziv and its population than previously thought.
Rather than dating to the Iron IB, they can be related to the Iron IIA and to the
existence of an elite manifesting its local identity through burial practices that
reflect long-lasting coastal cultural traditions. At the same time, a new date
for the resettlement of Achziv is offered and connected to processes of Tyrian
consolidation of power, accompanied by the establishment of administrative
control in parts of the western Galilee and the Akko Valley in the Iron Age IIA.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
New Studies in the Archaeology of Jerusalem and Its Region, 2018
Between March-November of 2016, the impressive remains of a large Medieval settlement were uneart... more Between March-November of 2016, the impressive remains of a large Medieval settlement were unearthed in the Atarot Industrial Area, Jerusalem. The settlement type, architecture and its decorative style, pottery, and written evidence all suggest that the settlement known as Khirbet er-Ram, should be identified with Ramathes (Ramatha), the Frankish village founded in the 12th century CE by the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and settled by free Frankish people. The discovery of the village at er-Ram adds to our knowledge of the agricultural hinterland of Crusader Jerusalem and the establishment of well-planned rural villages during the 12th century CE in the Levant.
Bookmarks Related papers MentionsView impact
Palestine Exploration Quarterly, 2018
Though our knowledge of Iron Age Phoenician cultic architecture is quite limited, the available d... more Though our knowledge of Iron Age Phoenician cultic architecture is
quite limited, the available data suggests that pre-Classical
Phoenician temples followed a similar plan which displayed
several unique architectural features. This plan originated from a
long held, Bronze Age, Canaanite tradition which became
especially prominent along the northern Levantine coast from the
Middle Bronze Age II, appearing alongside other temple plans.
This article aims to demonstrate that during the Iron Age and
most of the Persian period, this temple plan became the
predominant temple type in Phoenicia and its dependencies. It
was only during the late Persian period, that a drastic change
occurred, and this millennia-old plan was abandoned in favor of
other temple types. Nevertheless, it appears that despite this
seemingly radical change, the most notable feature of the
traditional plan was preserved.
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Salvage Excavation Reports, 2017
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Salvage Excavation Reports, 2017
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A Jew's Best Friend? The Image of the Dog throughout Jewish History, 2013
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Tel Aviv: Journal of the Institute of Archaeology of …, Jan 1, 2008
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12th International Congress on the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, 2021
Figurines are commonly found in many archaeological contexts, from domestic, through cultic, to f... more Figurines are commonly found in many archaeological contexts, from domestic, through cultic, to funerary. However, since the 1970’s with the development of underwater archaeology, another context was added. In recent years many figurine assemblages were found underwater, which may represent shipwrecks’ cargos or offerings cast into the sea during rituals. The study of figurines in underwater contexts poses many difficulties beyond their identification and interpretation. Their discovery is usually subjected not only to systematic surveys, but also to unexpected weather conditions. Many figurine caches were severely looted, resurfacing in antiquities markets void of context. They are subjected to complex post-depositional processes that can displace, scatter, break, and severely erode them, and they are often covered by marine concretion, rendering them unidentifiable. This paper wishes to present the difficulties and challenges we have encountered while dealing with an underwater assemblage of terracotta figurines found in the Mediterranean, and the solutions we have found which can be applied to figurine assemblages elsewhere.
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In the early 1970’s a cache of hundreds of figurines, as well as pottery vessels and other notabl... more In the early 1970’s a cache of hundreds of figurines, as well as pottery vessels and other notable finds, were found in an area spread over 1.5km off the coast of Shavei Zion, located in northern Israel. Although no evidence of a ship were noted, save for a lead anchor weight, the excavators maintained this was the site of a shipwreck dated to the 5th century BCE. However, a reexamination of the relevant pottery retrieved from the site seems to suggest a broader chronological range that spans from the 7th-4th centuries BCE, which would indicate a long period of maritime activities rather than a single cataclysmic event. Furthermore, while the figurines were presented in preliminary publications as a cohesive collection of figurines representing the goddess Tanit, based on emblems attributed to her that were imprinted on the body of the figurine, the reality is more complex. Although the figurines do display homogeneity in terms of production technique and general motif, they also demonstrate a high degree of variability in the size, posture, position of the limbs, headdress, and artistic style. Such heterogeneity does not seem to fit the profile of a merchantman’s cargo, which usually displays consistency in its transported wares. Therefore, we maintain that the cultic nature of the finds and the long period of use could indicate that the underwater site of Shavei Zion represents ritual deposits of votive offerings cast into the sea, perhaps in order to secure a successful voyage in the Mediterranean.
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Funerary practices are often considered a conservative element in ancient societies, which repres... more Funerary practices are often considered a conservative element in ancient societies, which represent their religious ideas concerning death and the afterlife, and can often serve as an ethnic marker distinguishing one ethnic group from another. Funerary architecture is therefore somewhat limited to a few types of tombs which represent the deceased’s social status in life, e.g. monumental tombs for monarchs, elaborate tombs for the wealthy, and simple burials for commoners. In Phoenicia however, the archaeological evidence suggest that Iron Age Phoenician funerary practices demonstrate a much greater diversity, not only in various grave and tomb types ranging from simple pit burials to elaborate rock-cut shaft tombs, but also in the post-mortem treatment of the body, as both inhumation and cremation were practiced, occasionally appearing in the same tomb. This paper suggests that the unique conditions that formed Phoenician culture, had developed an urban-centered society, whose main economic engine was trade and the production of luxury items, rather than agriculture. The ability for social mobility in such a society was far greater than in other ancient near eastern cultures. And that this complex social stratification is evident in the diversity of burial traditions among the Phoenicians during the Iron Age.
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During the Iron Age, the newly formed ethnicities of the southern Levant developed religions that... more During the Iron Age, the newly formed ethnicities of the southern Levant developed religions that centered around a unique deity, or deities, as part of the formation of their national identities. While all of these ‘new’ religions have Bronze Age Canaanite origins, it seems that the official stance of their worshippers was to distance themselves from their shared Canaanite heritage. On the Phoenician coast, a similar process occurred as each individual city-state rallied around a deity or deities with unique civic aspects such as Melqart at Tyre. However, unlike the rest of the southern Levant, Phoenician religion and cult is marked by almost rigid continuity of certain Bronze Age traditions. One of the best examples for such continuity is manifested in temple architecture. Phoenician temples shared many characteristics that allow us to define these cultic structures as adhering to a certain type. This temple type appeared in the southern Levant as early as the Early Bronze Age, and can be found throughout the region during the second millennium BCE. However, during the Iron Age, the distribution of these temples is confined almost exclusively to the coast and its immediate hinterland. And while Phoenician temples underwent changes during the late Persian period, some of their unique architectural features endured well into the Roman period suggesting to the persistence of at least some cultic traditions and to the endurance of the Phoenico-Canaanite religion.
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חידושים בארכיאולוגיה שלירושלים וסביבותיה
בחודשים מרס–נובמבר 2016 נחשפו בחפירת הצלה באזור התעשייה עטרות, ירושלים, שרידיו המרשימים של כפר רח... more בחודשים מרס–נובמבר 2016 נחשפו בחפירת הצלה באזור התעשייה עטרות, ירושלים, שרידיו המרשימים של כפר רחב ידיים מהתקופה הצלבנית, לצד ממצאים דלים יותר מתקופות אחרות. טיפוס היישוב, הארכיטקטורה וסגנונה העיטורי, כמו גם הממצא הקרמי, והעדויות הכתובות תומכים בזיהויו של היישוב שנחשף בח'ירבת א-רם עם רמת'ס, הכפר הצלבני הפרנקי שהוקם במאה הי"ב לסה"נ ביוזמת כנסיית הקבר ויושב על ידי פרנקים חופשיים. גילויו של היישוב הפרנקי בא-רם מוסיף נדבך חשוב לידע שלנו על העורף החקלאי של ירושלים בתקופה הצלבנית ועל הקמתם של כפרים חדשים, מתוכננים בקפידה, בלבנט.
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הידע שלנו על הארכיטקטורה הפולחנית של הפניקים בתקופת הברזל, כמו תחומים רבים אחרים של התרבות הפניקי... more הידע שלנו על הארכיטקטורה הפולחנית של הפניקים בתקופת הברזל, כמו תחומים רבים אחרים של התרבות הפניקית, עדיין לוקה בחסר. הסיבה העיקרית לכך היא מיעוט המידע הארכיאולוגי מהמרכזים הפניקים הגדולים, אשר שוכנים היום תחת ערי לבנון המודרניות. מלבד היעדר הגישה אל השכבות הקדומות הללו, טיבם של מתחמים פולחנים הוא להישאר בשימוש במשך תקופות ארוכות, ופעמים רבות פעולות בנייה מאוחרות פוגעות קשות במבנים הקדומים עליהם הושתתו מבני פולחן מאוחרים. עם זאת, מספר לא מועט של מקדשים נחפרו במהלך השנים באתרים שונים לאורך החוף, ובחינה מדוקדקת של תוכניתם הארכיטקטונית מגלה כי ניתן להבחין במספר מאפיינים החוזרים על עצמם במקדשים הפניקיים:
1. מקדשים פניקים היו קטנים יותר בהשוואה למקבילות מהמזרח הקדום.
2. המקדש כלל מבנה מלבני, בערך ביחס של 2:1, אורך-רוחב, שלעיתים חולק לאולם מרכזי ומחסן אחורי.
3. המקדש נבנה לרוב על ציר מז'-מע'.
4. קודש הקודשים של המקדש נבנה בצד המערבי של האולם המרכזי וכלל במה מדורגת.
5. הכניסה הראשית למקדש נבנתה באחד הצדדים של הקירות הארוכים, כך שנוצרה כניסה לטרלית.
מאפיינים טיפוסיים נוספים כללו ספסלים שנבנו לאורך הקירות הפנימיים, בסיסי עמודים שתמכו בגג, מצבות או עמודים מקודשים ואלמנטים הקשורים בנסוך של נוזלים. בעוד שרוב האלמנטים המוזכרים לעיל אופייניים גם למקדשים אחרים בדרום הלבנט והמזרח הקדום, הכניסה הלטרלית הייתה ייחודית למקדשים פניקיים ויצרה מבנה מטיפוס ה-bent entry. טיפוס מקדש זה הופיע לראשונה בתקופת הברונזה הקדומה בלבנט, אך נראה כי החל מתקופת הברונזה התיכונה 2, הפך טיפוס מקדש זה לטיפוס העיקרי לאורך החוף הכנעני הצפוני. הפניקים של תקופת הברזל שימרו את המסורות הכנעניות של תקופת הברונזה והמשיכו להשתמש בטיפוס מקדש זה עד לסוף התקופה הפרסית, בה מתחילים להופיע מקדשים מטיפוסים שונים שאף הם שימרו מסורות מתקופת הברונזה.
בהרצאה זאת אבקש להדגים את שרידותו של המקדש הכנעני החופי לאורך אלפי שנים והפיכתו לטיפוס המקדש העיקרי של התרבות הפניקית, שלפיכך ניתן להגדירו כסממן תרבותי המרמז על נוכחות פניקית או לכל הפחות, השפעה ישירה.
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עד לא מכבר, קבורות קרמיצה המתוארכות לתקופת הברזל שנחשפו בדרום הלבנט ייוחסו על ידי חוקרים לאוכלוסי... more עד לא מכבר, קבורות קרמיצה המתוארכות לתקופת הברזל שנחשפו בדרום הלבנט ייוחסו על ידי חוקרים לאוכלוסיות זרות, ובעיקר ליוונים. אך גילויים בשנים האחרונות של בתי קברות בהם קבורות קרמציה רבות בפניקיה ולאורך החוף המזרחי של הים התיכון, כגון צור אל-באס, הובילו להערכה מחודשת של נוהגי הקבורה הפניקים בתקופת הברזל. נראה כי, החל מתקופת הברזל ב' (המאה העשירית לפנה"ס לערך), קרמציה התחרתה בשיטת הקבורה המסורתית, קרי האינומציה, כשיטת הקבורה הרווחת בפניקיה. תופעה זאת הגיעה לשיאה במאה השמינית לפנה"ס ואז הלכה ופחתה עד להעלמותה לחלוטין, במזרח ובמערב הפניקי, במאה השישית לפנה"ס.
קבורה נחשבת לרוב למרכיב תרבותי מסורתי ושמרני, ולמרות שקבורות קרמציה הופיעו במזרח הקדום בתקופות קדומות יותר, נראה כי אימוץ שיטת קבורה זו בצורה כה גורפת בפניקיה במהלך תקופת הברזל, מעידה על שינוי מהותי בהתנהגות הריטואלית של יושביה. גם אם שינוי שכזה נעשה ממניעים פרקטיים, ולאו דווקא אידיאולוגיים כפי שהציעו חוקרים מסויימים, מיסודה של מסורת חדשה ורדיקלית שכזו הייתה תלויה בתמיכה, ואולי אף הובלתה, של הכהונה הרשמית שנאלצה למצוא צידוקים אידאולוגיים לשינוי כה מהותי. ייתכן מאוד כי הפניקים שיישבו את מערב הים התיכון במאה השמינית לפנה"ס, נשאו עימם את מערכת הרעיונות לגביי קרמציה שהייתה אז בשיאה במולדתם, ויישמו אותה למערכת ריטואלים חדשה בדמות אתרי התופת, בהם נטמנו שרידיהם החרוכים ואפרם של פעוטות ובעלי חיים בכדי קבורה, שהוקדשו או הוקרבו לאלים. מטרתה של הרצאה זאת היא לדון בהשפעות האידיאולוגיות במזרח הים התיכון שהובילו להקמתם של אתרי תופת, ולהציע שאידיאולוגיה זאת יכולה לגשר בין שתי הפרשנויות המובילות לאתרי התופת, אתרי הקרבת ילדים או בתי קברות לפעוטות.
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‘Tophet’ sites and their function, have been the focus of a fiery debate since their first discov... more ‘Tophet’ sites and their function, have been the focus of a fiery debate since their first discovery during the early 20th century. These open-air infant cremation sanctuaries, which were in use from the 8th to the 2nd century BCE, were found in Phoenician sites of the central Mediterranean and became one of the hallmarks of the Phoenician civilization in the west. There are two main interpretations of the function of these sites: The first suggests these were child sacrifice sites, and the second suggest they functioned as infant cemetery.
The aim of this paper is to discuss the possible ideological influences in the Phoenician homeland which led to the appearance of tophet sites, and suggest that this ideology could account for both the remains of sacrificial victims and also children who died of natural causes.
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Our knowledge of Phoenician cultic architecture of the first millennium BCE is still quite limite... more Our knowledge of Phoenician cultic architecture of the first millennium BCE is still quite limited, due to the relative paucity of archaeological data from the major centers of the Phoenician homeland. Nevertheless, an examination of the available data suggests the Phoenicians employed a predominant architectural plan for temples which stems from a long Bronze Age Coastal-Canaanite tradition. This temple type included several key characteristics: It consisted of a rectangular structure of humble proportions, usually built along an east-west axis, in ca. 2:1 length-width ratio. The structure often consisted of a main hall and a smaller room which seems to have served as the vault. The sacred area consisted of a raised, stepped, platform which was located in the western part of the main hall. And perhaps most interesting and unique was the location of the main entrance, which was set near the edge of one of the long walls creating a ‘bent entry room’, providing a lateral entrance. Other frequent features include benches along the inner walls, columns which supported a roof, a betil or a small pillar was often erected in or in front of the sacred area, and elements related to libation such as channels, drains, or basins, were very common within or in the immediate vicinity of the temple.
This lecture aims to demonstrate the predominance of this temple type in the Phoenician culture of the eastern Mediterranean from the Bronze Age and to the late Persian period.
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Alter Orient und Altes Testament, 2019
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It is commonly maintained that the official Achaemenid policy, enacted by Cyrus the Great, was to... more It is commonly maintained that the official Achaemenid policy, enacted by Cyrus the Great, was to allow religious freedom to the various peoples under their hegemony. Cyrus specifically was renowned for reinstating deportees to their homelands, permitting them to carry back the stolen treasures of their sacked temples, and reestablish their cults. Yet, when examining the cult practices of the Phoenicians in the eastern Mediterranean during the Persian period, several dramatic changes seem to have occurred, most of which remain unexplained. Some of these changes are consistent with principals of the Zoroastrian religion, the official religion of the Achaemenids from the time of Darius I, as they appear in their late holy scriptures. Although written sources suggest that in certain instances the Achaemenid court did in fact attempt to interfere with the cultic practices of other nations, it seems highly unlikely that the Achaemenids forced their system of beliefs on the Phoenicians, with whom they maintained good relations throughout most of the Persian period. However, it is more than possible that as part of those warm relations, certain Zoroastrian ideas sipped into Phoenician society bringing about changes to their cultic practices.
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The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically disrupted international archaeological collaboration throug... more The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically disrupted international archaeological collaboration throughout the world, forcing numerous expeditions to cancel excavation seasons. While other intellectual collaborations continue using various tools, the option for remote collaboration in the field of archaeology is far more limited as there is no real replacement for hands-on fieldwork. Despite this obstacle, researchers from the University of California San Diego (USA) and University of Haifa (Israel) have come together, taking the full advantage of the available technological possibilities in order to bring fieldwork, located in the Carmel coast, halfway across the world to the laboratories of UC San Diego Qualcomm Institute and Scrips Center of Marine Archaeolgy. University of Haifa faculty and students heading to the site excavating, collecting artifacts and samples for analyses recording and live-streaming data from underwater in real time using Gopro and 35 mm high definition cameras. The data collected daily in Israel was uploaded from the University of Haifa Recanati Institute of Maritime Studies to UC San Diego and processed there producing digital tools for the aid of the excavators in the field, such as 3D models of the site, day-by-day interactive top-plans in ArcGIS Pro, and analyses of the divers' movement in the water. The University of Haifa team sent photos, drawings, and 3D scans of unique artifacts to be 3D printed and examined in UC San Diego within hours. Such innovative real-time collaboration is the first that we know of during archaeological excavations. It is far from optimal, but it opens the door for new exciting possibilities in the field. A 3D model of artifacts were prepared at University of Haifa using an HP SLS Pro 3D scanner and sent to UC San Diego Staff meetings were held daily via Zoom and contact in the field was kept via other messaging platforms.
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ASOR Annual Meeting, 2020
The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically disrupted international archaeological collaboration throug... more The COVID-19 pandemic has drastically disrupted international archaeological collaboration throughout the world, forcing numerous expeditions to cancel excavation seasons. While other intellectual collaborations continue using various tools, the option for remote collaboration in the field of archaeology is far more limited as there is no real replacement for hands-on fieldwork. Despite this obstacle, researchers from UCSD and UH have come together, taking the full advantage of the available technological possibilities in order to bring fieldwork, located in the Carmel coast, halfway across the world to the laboratories of UCSD. University of Haifa students heading to the site Excavating, collecting artifacts and samples for analyses Recording and live-streaming data from underwater in real time using Gopro cams The data collected daily was sent from UH to UCSD and processed there producing digital tools for the aid of the excavators in the field, such as 3D models of the site, day-by-day interactive top-plans in ArcGIS Pro, and analyses of the divers' movement in the water. The UH team sent photos, drawings, and 3D scans of unique artifacts to be 3D printed and examined in UCSD within hours. Such innovative real-time collaboration is the first that we know of during archaeological excavations. It is far from optimal, but it opens the door for new exciting possibilities in the field. A 3D model of artifacts were prepared at UH using an HP SLS Pro 3D scanner and sent to UCSD Staff meetings were held daily via Zoom and contact in the field was kept via other messaging platforms The copy (bottom) of the original (top) was printed in UCSD using a Prusa i3 MK2
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JOURNAL OF EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE STUDIES, 2023
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