Indian Temples Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

My discovery of Pallava Grantha inscription at Mahendravadi.

- by Deepika S
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- Indian Temples, Inscriptions, Indian Archaeology and History of Art, Indian Epigraphy

karanas in Natyasasthra of Bharathamuni . 32 Angahara associated with 108 karana, are discussed. Dr Padmasubrahmanyam had done an excellent work in Tamil Nad temples. My attempt was to find out how many of these karana are depicted in Temples of Kerala, especially in Malabar area. Wunad Panamaram Vishnu temple shows maximum number of Karana , but most of the structures are dilapidated and in ruins and restoration is needed immeadiately. Others like Kadavallur ,Thriprayar etc are wellkept and photographing was easy. Erotic pictures are very rare in Kerala. Panamaram , Laloor show some. Occasional one in Avittathur also. But compared to the neighbouring states they are sparse. Several mural paintings depicting dance drama of Puranic stories are seen. Use of natural colours is noteworthy. Many are faded and needs restoration. Rock art of Akshayapathra with a Black Krishna on it is a find from Panchapandavatheertham , near the pool where Panchali is said to have taken her bath. Near it a few cupolas (considered as the feet of Bheema by locals) also discovered. Similarly a statue of Alexander in Thriprayar temple was a rare discovery .

- by Suvarna Nalapat
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- Musicology, Indian Temples, Hindu temples, Phylosophy of arts

See 'Hindu Temple Typologies in India', which is a revised and improved version of this paper.

- by Adam Hardy
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- Architectural History, Indian Temples, India, Indian architecture

This article describes the 11th century AD temple of Bhojpur, attributed to King Bhoja Paramara, who ruled at Dharanagari (Dhar in Madhya Pradesh) over a large empire, and is also reputed to have created the river dam visible today as a massive out work near Bhojpur. The Bhoj Tal is a remnant of his monumental construction, remaining after the draining of the river by Mandu Sultan Hoshang Shah in the 15th century AD. The article provides a background of the theory and practice of construction provided by the scholar king and polymath in his architectural texts, illustrations of the meticulous drawings, ramps created for raising the Bhojpur Siva temple, photographs of the huge sculptures, including that of the Siva Linga, reputed to be the largest of its kind, known in India. It also explores the meaning of the temple, by analyzing scholarly opinions, and, tentatively looks into the comparative Asian context for the morphology of the architecture. It contains a detailed description of the shape and meaning of the art of Bhojpur temple. It throws light on the broad minded, inclusive, non-sectarian approach of this great king and evokes memory of his life and mind through a description of the many facets of his personality and work, etched in history, despite his turbulent times.

- by Pushkar Sohoni
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- Indian Temples, Medieval Indian History, Deccan Sultanates, Indian Sculpture

Temple Designs-Role of Mathematics

- by Dr. Uday Dokras
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- Mathematics, Indian Temples, Hindu temples
- by Adam Hardy
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- Indian Temples, History of architecture, Kashmir, South Asian Art History
- by Michael Willis
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- Hinduism, Historical Anthropology, Historical Sociology, Religious Patronage
- by Shrikant Ganvir
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- Iconography, Indian Temples

The sacred city Kashi known today as Varanasi is one of the oldest living cities in the world. Kashi is often referred to as a microcosm and city of divine light. (Sadguru, Kashi: The Eternal City). It is the permanent abode of Lord Shiva... more

- by SHREYA TIWARI
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- Religion, Buddhism, Hinduism, Buddhist Studies

Hindu temples of Goa Unique architecture and History

- by Dr. Uday Dokras
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- Hinduism, Indian Temples, Hindu temples, Hindu Studies

Temple emerged as a significant and influential institution in medieval India, patronised by almost all classes of the society. The temples were endowed with villages, plots of land, gardens, oil-mills, cash donations, various commodities such as vessels, bells, ornaments, animals, grains, spices and innumerable other items. Very often, the temples had complete judicial, administrative and economic control over a large number of villages that were donated to them, many times in far-flung areas. In this way, temple evolved into a land-owning rich organization that carried out the multiple functions of a religious place, educational institution and also occupation-generating economic institution.
The evolution of temple into such an important institution pose many interesting queries such as socio-economic-religious background of the rise of temples, nature of patronage and general function of the temple in contemporary society. This work aims to address some of these problems in the case of temples from Maharashtra, primarily with the help of epigraphic material, which comprises of around 255 inscriptions recording construction of temples and/or grants to these temples. Understanding the socio-economic-religious background of the rise of temples, evolution of temple institution, nature of patronage as well as nature and terms of endowments, functioning of temples and religious trends of the contemporary society, are some of the primary aims of this study.

- by Viraj Shah
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- History of Religion, Indian Temples, Religious Studies

Shringara rasa-the sentiment of erotic love, and first of the nine rasas / navarasas as they are called are the natural states of mind experienced by humans. Of the nine sentiments-nava rasas, shringara occupies an important place in the history of ancient Indian literature and fine arts. Indian temples show the figures of apsaras depicting the sentiment of love, both in the theoretical aspects relating to theatrics (as described in Natyashastra by Bharata Muni around 2nd century AD) as well as in the practical side of life with Kamasutra of Vatsyayana (by sage Vatsyayana, around 2-3 century AD) as its base. Many erotic sculptures depicting union also involve dwarf figures at the base as secondary figures which are in pranayama variations with hatha yoga mudras and are tantra based union figures. (Though based on Patanjali Yoga sutra assigned between 3-4th century AD, Hatha yoga gained prominence beyond 5th century AD). Several commentaries on these topics were written in the subsequent periods and by medieval period the kings who sponsored the construction of temples, the sthapatis and sculptors were all well versed on these topics along with religious and philosophical aspects. The outcome was the inclusion of these topics in a permanent medium of stone in temples for mass communication. This article focuses on how to understand the shades of shringara rasa that are depicted on the outer walls of Indian temples and how tantric themes, are different from non-tantric ones as they are based on different ancient texts.

- by Rekha Rao
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- Indian studies, Philosophy of Art, Indian Temples, Indian History

The article gives a brief account of how geology and stone types influenced temple architecture in Karnataka, a state in Southern India. The theme of this paper is about the journey of rocks from hills to temples, exploring the “Evolution... more

- by Rekha Rao
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- Geology, Art History, History of India, Indian studies

There is hardly any country in the world, which does not have an Indian element in its
population. So wide is its spread that it could rightly be said that the Sun never sets on the
Indian population.
Among the Indian Diaspora, Tamils form a substantial minority – 8 million out of 35 million.
They constitute the overwhelming majority of the Indian population in Sri Lanka, Malaysia,
Singapore and Reunion. They are in good numbers in Myanmar, Indonesia, South Africa,
Mauritius, Seychelles, Fiji, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, Australia, New
Zealand, Gulf countries, England, United States, Canada and European Union.
The most amazing of these were the Tamilians... ancient traders who conquered the far and Near East and South East Asia

- by Dr. Uday Dokras
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- South-East Asia, Tamil Literature, Tamil, Tamil Nadu

The Pallava dynasty was an Indian dynasty that existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a portion of southern India. They gained prominence after the eclipse of the Satavahana dynasty, in which the Pallavas served as feudatories. Pallavas became a major power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571 – 630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630 – 668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region for about 600 years until the end of the 9th century. Pallavas are well known for their architectural patronage and for the introduction of the new Dravidian style of Indian architecture, with the finest example being the Shore Temple in Mahabalipuram, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Pallavas were the ones who had laid the foundations of medieval South Indian architecture by constructing impressive temples and sculptures.

- by Abhinandan Kaul
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- Indian ancient history, South India, Indian Temples, Ancient Indian Architecture
- by Adam Hardy
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- Architectural History, Design Patterns, Indian Temples, Ancient Indian Architecture

The relationship to actual practice of the vastuśāstras (or vāstuśāstras) and śilpaśāstras, the canonical Indian texts on architecture and sculpture, is a complex one. Scholarly attitudes to these texts range between an uncritical assumption that, traditionally, these texts set the rules for making buildings and sculptures, thereby holding the key to understanding them, and complete denial of their utility, on the basis that they were probably composed by Brahmans who were cut off from practical experience. The truth must lie somewhere in between. To establish the extent to which any particular text may have been useful for creating architecture, it must be shown whether it can be used for this purpose – if not by actually building, at least by drawing. This, surely, should be a prerequisite for any sensible discussion of the nature of these texts. Surprisingly, the one sustained attempt to illustrate a vastuśāstra is that of Ram Raz, whose 1834 essay is the first work of modern scholarship on Hindu temples. 1 On the basis of a fragment of the south Indian Mānasāra, Ram Raz was assisted by a contemporary practitioner in interpreting its prescriptions through lucid drawings, done in a florid latter-day Drāviḍa style (Figure 1). Successors to this enterprise are extremely rare. 2 This article is an attempt to interpret one vastu text through drawing, and in so doing to reach some conclusions about its usability. It is a first fruit of a collaborative study of the Samarāṅgaṇasūtradhāra by Mattia Salvini and me. Salvini has transliterated the chapters on temple architecture and translated them from the Sanskrit, 3 and we have begun to refine the translation through discussion. Our eventual aim is to produce a critical, annotated, and illustrated translation of these chapters. A large proportion of the text consists of technical terms, which must always have rendered it meaningless to anyone unable to visualise what is being conveyed. Access to this vocabulary would be impossible if scholarship in the past two centuries had not unearthed much of its meaning, especially in the last fifty years, and particularly through the work of M.A. Dhaky encapsulated in the Encyclopaedia of Indian Temple Architecture (EITA) produced by the American Institute of Indian Studies. 4 While it is widely understood that regional traditions employed different terminologies, a relatively standardised vocabulary has become accessible to students of Indian temple architecture. This provides indispensable points of reference from which 1. 'Vimána consisting of five Stories', from Ram Raz, Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus (1834), Plate XXXII, with alignment and prescribed proportions added.

- by Adam Hardy
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- Architectural History, Indian Temples, India, Sacred Geometry

The ancient city of Vatapi (modern Badami, in Bagalkot District of Karnataka) was founded by Polekeshi I in the year 543CE. As part of the fortification scheme of the city, a bund was constructed to contain stormwater and create a reservoir. A waterfall, which is basically the stormwater runoff from a cliff in the east, is the most obvious contributor to the reservoir. In this paper, I present the discovery that this is an artificially created waterfall, with a semi-circular basin cut out of the top of the cliff to the east of the reservoir, at a point where a large number of the stormwater streams converge. I also examine the possibility that this rock-cut feature was created by the Early Chalukyan builders.

- by Srikumar M Menon
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- History, Archaeology, Art History, Architecture

STHAMB- Pillars of Hindu temples- what is the role played by them?

- by Dr. Uday Dokras
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- Indian Temples, Hindu temples, Crown Pillars
- by Prakash Shah
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- Jainism, Jain Art, Indian Temples, Temples

The diminutive rock-cut temple at Thal was first reported in 1916, and later described briefly in 1975. So far, there has been no detailed description or drawings published, for the same. In this paper, we describe this small, but important monument, present measured drawings for the same, and speculate on the possible date of the rock-cut temple, based on comparison with similar monuments in the region and elsewhere.

- by Srikumar M Menon
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- Hinduism, History, Archaeology, Art History
- by Michael W Meister
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- Indian Temples, Indian Temple Architecture
- by Mrinmoyee Ray
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- Art History, Architectural History, History of Bengal, Indian Art
- by Michael W Meister
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- Indian Temples, Indian Temple Architecture, Kutina
- by Tiziana Lorenzetti
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- Art History, Architecture, History of India, Indian studies

The Malaprabha Valley is a 25km stretch of land enclosed by sandstone cliffs, through which the River Malaprabha flows towards its confluence with the much Larger River Krishna. Though synonymous with the cave and temple architecture of the Early Chalukyans who ruled much of south India from Vatapi (Badami) during the 6th to 8th centuries CE, the human occupation of this landscape dates back to the Palaeolithic. In this article, I discuss the landscape and the monuments that were created in it from prehistoric to later times. Click on the link below to access the full article (pages 58-60).

I templi dell'India meridionale presentano complessi programmi iconografici in cui molto spazio è dato alla danza. Nei rilievi così come nei dipinti o nelle figure isolate, troviamo la rappresentazione delle posizioni della danza, fino a raggiungere esempi come il tempio di Chidambaram nei cui portali monumentali campeggiano i 108 karana del Natya Shastra, le posizioni della danza. Questo gigantesco tempio del Tamil Nadu è dedicato a Shiva nella sua forma di Nataraja, re della danza. La complessa iconografia di questa divinità, emblema dell'eterno ciclo di creazione e distruzione degli universi nasconde importanti suggestioni mitiche e valenze sociali. La rappresentazione di Shiva Nataraja in preziose statue in bronzo è considerata la più alta forma di rappresentazione dell'attività divina che l'uomo abbia creato.

Design concepts of the Angkor wat temple:
This theory claims that the Brahmins, the priests, were mainly responsible for the spread of Indian culture throughout Southeast Asia. As said in the previous theory, the Vaishya Theory, a certain amount of power and authority was required for such a deep pervasion of the Indian culture. The Brahmins were the highest level in the caste system, deeply knowledgeable on the concepts of the political system and the religious system and thus able to spread these concepts to the countries and local communities in Southeast Asia. Furthermore, as they were the highest caste, it is likely that the local rulers themselves would have welcomed and respected their presence. The Brahmins interacted with the local rulers, becoming counsellors in court and legitimising the local rulers by giving them a sort of genealogical list, supporting them politically. Additionally, they were knowledgeable in the concepts of the cosmic universe, which would have intrigued the locals with its mystique, as the majority of the locals then practiced animism and was greatly curious about the spirits around them. It is not a far leap to assume that the Brahmins could easily influence the rulers and the community with the Indian culture.

- by Dr. Uday Dokras
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- Indian Temples, Temples, Defining Temples, Post Angkor

THE HINDU MANDIR or TEMPLE as a PUBLIC SPACE also featuring ANGKOR

- by Dr. Uday Dokras
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- Indian Temples, Hindu temples, Architecture and Public Spaces
- by Sharat Sunder Rajeev
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- Settlement Patterns, Indian Temples, World Heritage Site Studies, Craftsmen

The Siva temple at Anwa is an extremely interesting temple site from 12th century CE in proximity to Ajanta and Ellora Cave structures, which puts it on the Dakshinapatha revived in the medieval period. The temple shows very interesting architecture style that seems to be in the transition period from Nagara to the more elaborate Bhumija. Although much small in scale, it has the outer mandapa that reminds of lineage to Gujarat Modhera Sun temple of Solankis and even closer to the Kopeshwar Siva Temple at Khidrapur near Kolhapur. The focus in this article though is more towards the unique Vaishnavis, or the prakritis of Vishnu. The depiction of Saptamatrikas or seven mother goddesses is quite common the western and southern part of India seen abundantly from 9th century CE onwards, although a number of saptamatrka images of pre Gupta and Gupta period, from 4th -6th century CE have also been found in Western India. Women depictions of Durga as Mahisasuramardini, Mahalakshami, Gajalakshami, river goddesses and Gayatri, Parvati and Lakshami (wives of Brahma, Siva and Visnu) has been seen on many temples. Very creative depiction of Kali, Shalabhanjika (fertility goddess) and yakshis and surasundaris have been seen on temples too. But a temple dedicated to depiction of only Vaishanvis is quite unique! In this preliminary observational article, attempt is to analyse the inspiration of this unique iconography and appreciate the exquisite quality of sculpture achieved by the artists.

- by Snehal Tambulwadikar- Khedkar
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- Indian Temples, Art Hsitory, Yoginīs

Chausath Yogini Temple, Morena (See also publication: Moreno in Campobasso, Italy)
Chausath Yogini Temple, circular in plan like other Yogini temples
The Chausath Yogini Temple, Morena, also known as Ekattarso Mahadeva Temple, is an 11th-century temple located in Morena district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is one of the few well-preserved Yogini temples in the country. The temple is formed by a circular wall with 64 chambers and an open mandapa in the centre, separated by a courtyard which is circular in shape, where Shiva is deified.
History
Chausath Yogini Temple on hilltop
The Chausath Yogini temple is in Mitaoli village (also spelled Mitawali or Mitavali), near Padaoli in Morena district 40 kilometres (25 mi) from Gwalior. According to an inscription dated to 1323 CE (Vikram Samvat 1383), the temple was built by the Kachchhapaghata king Devapala (r. c. 1055 – 1075). It is said that the temple was the venue of providing education in astrology and mathematics based on the transit of the Sun.
Central Sanctorum
Inner corridor with subsidiary shrines deified now Shiva Lingams
The temple is located on a hill which is about 100 feet (30 m) in height and there are 100 steps to climb leading to the entrance of the temple. It is externally circular in shape with a radius of 170 feet (52 m) and within its interior part it has 64 small chambers, each with a mandapa which is open and a facia of pilasters and pillars. The roof of the entire structure is flat including that of another east facing circular temple within the outer circular wall. A large passage or courtyard lies between the outer enclosure and the central temple which is dedicated to Lord Shiva. There is an open porch entrance to this temple. The exterior surface of the outer wall has carvings of Hindu deities. Each of the 64 chambers in the outer circle has an image of Shiva deified in it. However, recent investigations have confirmed that originally these had a Yogini image deified in them and hence the temple is known as Chausath Yogini Temple ('Chausath' here means "Sixty four". It is said that the roof over the 64 chambers and the central shrine had towers or shikharas which were probably removed during later modifications.
Within the main central shrine there are slab coverings which have perforations in them to drain rainwater to a large underground storage. The pipe lines from the roof lead the rain water to the storage are also visible. The temple needs conservation measures to preserve the ancient monument in good shape.
The design of the temple has withstood earthquake shocks, without any damage to its circular structural features, in the past several centuries. The temple is in the Seismic Zone III. This fact was cited when the issue of safety from earthquake effect of the Parliament House which is also a circular structure, whose design is taken from the Chausath Yogini Temple, was debated in the Indian Parliament.

- by David Vanderper
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- Religion, Prehistoric Archaeology, History of India, Indian studies

This paper is preliminary documentation of hitherto undocumented archaeological remains in a village viz. Thanapada, DIst. Nashik. The variety of remains include a couple of Jaina temples in a dilapidated stage, many images of Jaina Teerthankaras scattered in the village and some sculptural scatter indicating the presence of a Brahmanical temple in this village.

- by Manjiri Bhalerao
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- Jainism, Indian Temples, Nashik, Archaeological remains

Opinion on Sabarimala verdict published in The Indian Express

- by PRAMOD M KUMAR
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- Religion, Hinduism, Indian Temples, Women In Hinduism
- by Adam Hardy
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- Architectural History, Indian Temples, India, Hindu temples
- by Christiane KALANTARI
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- Indian Temples, Theory of ornament, Iconography and Iconology

The word “Shiva,” often referring to the Puranic God of Destruction in Hinduism, has a Sanskrit etymology and can literally be defined as the “Auspicious One.” Together with Brahma (the Creator) and Vishnu (The Preserver), he forms the Holy Trinity of the Puranic Hindu pantheon, the emergence of which can be attributed to the period between the second century BCE and the second century CE. Associated with the concept of worship in Hinduism, is the practice of devotional idolatry (also called Murti Puja), the first mention of which dates back to the first millennium BCE, in four Upanishads viz. the Aitareya Upanishad [Verse 3.2], the Prashna Upanishad [Verse 1.5], the Shvetashvatara Upanishad [Verse 1.13] and the Maitrayaniya Upanishad [Verse 6.14].
Since an archaeological study is incomplete without an analysis of the material culture, this paper shall discuss the development of Shaivite sculptures or votive idols of Shiva and attempt an object analysis of some of them from the Bhima Devi Temple in Pinjore. It will, however, not deal with any other sculptures from the site and shall limit its scope to the identifiable manifestations of Shiva, simply because despite the temple’s association with Devi, the Consort of Shiva,there is an insufficient representation of the sculptures of the female deity among the remains recovered from the partial excavations of the 1970s. On the other hand, several sculptures of Devi, that are housed in the Bhima Devi Complex, appear to be from other parallel sites(See Appendix II). Thus, in order to stay faithful to the context, this paper will limit its scope to only Shaivite sculptures, which are in abundance on the site, next only to the Vaishnavite Sculptures and sculptures of some Vedic deities.
In order to understand the Shaivite Sculptures on the site, this paper will first trace the history of the art of sculpture making with respect to Shiva before analysing the particulars of each sculpture from the site. It will also look into some generalised topics pertaining to Shiva and Shaiva sculptures, keeping in mind the utility of these concepts for researchers or readers looking into similar concepts and will therefore, be combining elements of religious philosophy with techniques of make and objective details of each sculpture, that are important for understanding religious sculptures of Indic Art in general and Shaivite Sculptures in particular.
The next section will, therefore, begin with discussing the “concept” of Shiva, as expounded by the vast cannons of primary literature, that are dedicated solely to this particular deity, as well as the interpretations and understanding of the Shaiva philosophy by scholars such as Wendy Doniger(2013).
Following this, it will look into the iconography associated with Shiva, which Sir John Marshall (1931), initially, linked with depictions on a particular seal from the Indus Valley. It will then delve into the art historical chronology of sculptures actually associated with Shiva. The final section will look into the details of the sculptures identified for certain from the site in question.

- by Zulfiqar Ali Kalhoro
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- Hinduism, Asian Studies, Indian studies, South Asian Studies

Since they are intended to recall to their audience the pious actions of illustrious members of the Jain community from a more or less remote past, the medieval Prabandhas devote an important space to the activity of temple building as it is probably one of the most expensive donations that could be made to the community. Thus, biographies of prominent Śvetāmbara laymen such as the Caulukya king Kumārapāla or the ministers Vastupāla and Tejaḥpāla include lists of religious edifices erected or renovated at their behest. As regards the sums spent on these constructions, however, it appears that they have not received the same attention from the authors. While there is only sparse information about funding issues in the chronicles dating back to the fourteenth century, later sources from the fifteenth century record precise amounts of money as well as other details unknown otherwise. Moreover, none of them clearly states where the money exactly came from. It might be assumed that laymen financed religious foundations with their personal wealth, but positive evidence is lacking to prove it. On the contrary, it is said in several stories of temple construction that the funds were miraculously obtained through the intercession of a deity. What can account for this supernatural motif seems to be the need of a divine sanction for the Jain sanctuaries dealt with, either because they rose to prominence at a comparatively late date or because they were located at a site claimed by other creeds. Another motivation would be to extoll the merit of the human founders of the temples inasmuch as the deities choose them on account of their good fortune and pious conduct.

- by Basile Leclère
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- Jainism, Indian Temples, Patronage (Medieval Studies), Medieval Indian History

An unusual example of portraiture is noted in a sculptural panel now in the Sagar University art museum. The panel's five-line Sanskrit inscription has been dated paleographically to the mid-8th century. The depictions are idealized but... more

- by Don Stadtner
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- Indian ancient history, Indian Temples, Burma Studies, Medieval Indian History