Specification of catecholaminergic and serotonergic neurons (original) (raw)

• Björklund, A. & Hökfelt, T. Handbook of Chemical Neuroanatomy (Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1984).
  Google Scholar
• Niewenhuys, R. Chemoarchitecture of the Brain (Springer, Berlin, 1985).
  Book Google Scholar
• Cooper, J. R. Bloom, F. E. & Roth, R. H. The Biochemical Basis of Neuropharmacology (Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1977).
  Google Scholar
• Hynes, M. & Rosenthal, A. Specification of dopaminergic and serotonergic neurons in the vertebrate CNS. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 9, 26–36 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Paxinos, G. The Rat Nervous System (Academic, San Diego, 1995).
  Google Scholar
• Landis, S. C. Target regulation of neurotransmitter phenotype. Trends Neurosci. 13, 344–350 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Francis, N. J. & Landis, S. C. Cellular and molecular determinants of sympathetic neuron development. Annu. Rev. Neurosci. 22, 541–566 (1999).
• Ernsberger, U. & Rohrer, H. Development of the cholinergic neurotransmitter phenotype in postganglionic sympathetic neurons. Cell Tissue Res. 297, 339–361 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Guillemot, F. et al. Mammalian achaete-scute homolog 1 is required for the early development of olfactory and autonomic neurons. Cell 75, 463–476 (1993).This paper provides the first genetic evidence for the essential role of Mash1 in sympathetic-neuron development.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ernsberger, U. et al. The expression of tyrosine hydroxylase and the transcription factors cPhox-2 and Cash-1: evidence for distinct inductive steps in the differentiation of chick sympathetic precursor cells. Mech. Dev. 52, 125–136 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Groves, A. K. et al. Differential regulation of transcription factor gene expression and phenotypic markers in developing sympathetic neurons. Development 121, 887–901 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hirsch, M. R., Tiveron, M.-C., Guillemot, F., Brunet, J.-F. & Goridis, C. Control of noradrenergic differentiation and Phox2a expression by MASH1 in the central and peripheral nervous system. Development 125, 599–608 (1998).This paper, together with reference 9 , provides genetic evidence for the essential role of Mash1 in peripheral and central NA differentiation, acting independently of Phox2b.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Varley, J. E., Wehby, R. G., Rueger, D. C. & Maxwell, G. D. Number of adrenergic and islet-1 immunoreactive cells is increased in avian trunk neural crest cell cultures in the presence of human recombinant osteogenic protein-1. Dev. Dyn. 203, 434–447 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lo, L., Tiveron, M.-C. & Anderson, D. J. MASH1 activates expression of the paired homeodomain transcription factor Phox2a, and couples pan-neuronal and subtype-specific components of autonomic neuronal identity. Development 125, 609–620 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Reissmann, E. et al. Involvement of bone morphogenetic protein-4 and bone morphogenetic protein-7 in the differentiation of the adrenergic phenotype in developing sympathetic neurons. Development 122, 2079–2088 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Shah, N. M., Groves, A. K. & Anderson, D. J. Alternative neural crest cell fates are instructively promoted by TGFβ superfamily members. Cell 85, 331–343 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Varley, J. E. & Maxwell, G. D. BMP2 and BMP4, but not BMP6 increase the number of adrenergic cells which develop in quail trunk neural crest cultures. Exp. Neurol. 140, 84–94 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Varley, J. E., McPherson, C. E., Zou, H., Niswander, L. & Maxwell, G. D. Expression of a constitutively active type I BMP receptor using a retroviral vector promotes the development of adrenergic cells in neural crest cultures. Dev. Biol. 196, 107–118 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Schneider, C., Wicht, H., Enderich, J., Wegner, M. & Rohrer, H. Bone morphogenetic proteins are required in vivo for the generation of sympathetic neurons. Neuron 24, 861–870 (1999).This paper provides in vivo evidence for the essential role of BMPs in the development of peripheral NA neurons.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Tiveron, M.-C., Hirsch, M.-R. & Brunet, J.-F. The expression pattern of the transcription factor Phox2 delineates synaptic pathways of the autonomic nervous system. J. Neurosci. 16, 7649–7660 (1996).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Pattyn, A., Morin, X., Cremer, H., Goridis, C. & Brunet, J.-F. Expression and interactions of the two closely related homeobox genes Phox2a and Phox2b during neurogenesis. Development 124, 4065–4075 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pattyn, A., Morin, X., Cremer, H., Goridis, C. & Brunet, J.-F. The homeobox gene Phox2b is essential for the development of autonomic neural crest derivatives. Nature 399, 366–370 (1999).This paper presents genetic evidence for the crucial role of Phox2b in the development of peripheral NA neurons.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Stanke, M. et al. The Phox2 homeodomain proteins are sufficient to promote the development of sympathetic neurons. Development 126, 4087–4094 (1999).This study, together with reference 32 , makes use of GOF methods to show that Phox2a and Phox2b are sufficient to initiate sympathetic-neuron development.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Morin, X. et al. Defects in sensory and autonomic ganglia and absence of locus coeruleus in mice deficient for the homeobox gene Phox2a. Neuron 18, 411–423 (1997).This paper shows the dependence of LC development on Phox2a.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Swanson, D. J., Zellmer, E. & Lewis, E. J. The homeodomain protein Arix interacts synergistically with cyclic AMP to regulate expression of neurotransmitter biosynthetic genes. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 27382–27392 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Yang, C. et al. Paired-like homeodomain proteins, Phox2a and Phox2b, are responsible for noradrenergic cell-specific transcription of the dopamine β-hydroxylase gene. J. Neurochem. 71, 1813–1826 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Kim, H. S., Seo, H., Yang, C., Brunet, J.-F. & Kim, K. S. Noradrenergic-specific transcription of the dopamine β-hydroxylase gene requires synergy of multiple _cis_-acting elements including at least two Phox2a-binding sites. J. Neurosci. 18, 8247–8260 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Adachi, M., Browne, D. & Lewis, E. J. Paired-like homeodomain proteins Phox2a/Arix and Phox2b/NBPhox have similar genetic organization and independently regulate dopamine β-hydroxylase gene transcription. DNA Cell Biol. 19, 539–554 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Swanson, D. J., Adachi, M. & Lewis, E. J. The homeodomain protein Arix promotes protein kinase A-dependent activation of the dopamine β-hydroxylase promoter through multiple elements and interaction with the coactivator cAMP-response element-binding protein-binding protein. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 2911–2923 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Seo, H. et al. A direct role of the homeodomain proteins, Phox2a/b, in noradrenaline neurotransmitter identity determination. J. Neurochem. 80, 905–916 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zellmer, E. et al. A homeodomain protein selectively expressed in noradrenergic tissue regulates transcription of neurotransmitter biosynthetic genes. J. Neurosci. 15, 8109–8120 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Lo, L., Morin, X., Brunet, J.-F. & Anderson, D. J. Specification of neurotransmitter identity by Phox2 proteins in neural crest stem cells. Neuron 22, 693–705 (1999).This paper makes use of GOF methods to show that Phox2 genes are sufficient to initiate sympathetic-neuron development. It also provides evidence that implicates cAMP signalling in this process.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pattyn, A., Hirsch, M.-R., Goridis, C. & Brunet, J.-F. Control of hindbrain motor neuron differentiation by the homeobox gene Phox2b. Development 127, 1349–1358 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Howard, M., Foster, D. N. & Cserjesi, P. Expression of HAND gene products may be sufficient for the differentiation of avian neural crest-derived cells into catecholaminergic neurons in culture. Dev. Biol. 215, 62–77 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Howard, M. J., Stanke, M., Schneider, C., Wu, X. & Rohrer, H. The transcription factor dHAND is a downstream effector of BMPs in sympathetic neuron specification. Development 127, 4073–4081 (2000).This study makes use of GOF methods to show the involvement of dHand in the development of sympathetic neurons.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Anderson, D. J. & Jan, Y. N. The Determination of the Neuronal Phenotype (Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK, 1998).
  Book Google Scholar
• Srivastava, D. et al. Regulation of cardiac mesodermal and neural crest development by the bHLH transcription factor, dHAND. Nature Genet. 16, 154–160 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lim, K. C. et al. Gata3 loss leads to embryonic lethality due to noradrenaline deficiency of the sympathetic nervous system. Nature Genet. 25, 209–212 (2000).This paper provides genetic evidence for a role of Gata3 in NA differentiation of the sympathetic lineage, but not in generic neuronal differentiation.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pacholczyk, T., Blakely, R. D. & Amara, S. G. Expression cloning of a cocaine- and antidepressant-sensitive human noradrenaline transporter. Nature 350, 350–354 (1991).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rohrer, H. Non-neuronal cells from chick sympathetic and dorsal root sensory ganglia express catecholamine uptake and receptors for nerve growth factor during development. Dev. Biol. 111, 95–107 (1985).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Kim, C. H., Kim, H. S., Cubells, J. F. & Kim, K. S. A previously undescribed intron and extensive 5′ upstream sequence, but not Phox2a-mediated transactivation, are necessary for high level cell type-specific expression of the human norepinephrine transporter gene. J. Biol. Chem. 274, 6507–6518 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Taber Pierce, E. Time of origin of neurons in the brain stem of the mouse. Prog. Brain Res. 40, 53–65 (1973).
  Article Google Scholar
• Steindler, D. A. & Trosko, B. K. Two types of locus coeruleus neurons born on different embryonic days in the mouse. Anat. Embryol. (Berl.) 179, 423–434 (1989).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Pattyn, A., Goridis, C. & Brunet, J.-F. Specification of the central noradrenergic phenotype by the homeobox gene Phox2b. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 15, 235–243 (2000).This paper provides evidence for the essential role of Phox2b in LC development, acting downstream of Phox2a.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Vogel-Höpker, A. & Rohrer, H. The specification of noradrenergic locus coeruleus neurons depends on bone morphogenetic proteins. Development 129, 983–991 (2002).This paper, together with reference 48 , presents in vivo evidence for a role of BMPs in the development of central NA neurons.
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Liem, K. F. Jr, Tremml, G., Roelink, H. & Jessell, T. M. Dorsal differentiation of neural plate cells induced by BMP-mediated signals from epidermal ectoderm. Cell 82, 969–979 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Altmann, C. R. & Brivanlou, A. H. Neural patterning in the vertebrate embryo. Int. Rev. Cytol. 203, 447–482 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Guo, S. et al. Development of noradrenergic neurons in the zebrafish hindbrain requires BMP, FGF8, and the homeodomain protein soulless/Phox2a. Neuron 24, 555–566 (1999).This study provides genetic evidence in zebrafish for the involvement of BMPs, FGF8 and Phox2a in LC development.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Barth, K. A. et al. Bmp activity establishes a gradient of positional information throughout the entire neural plate. Development 126, 4977–4987 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wurst, W. & Bally-Cuif, L. Neural plate patterning: upstream and downstream of the isthmic organizer. Nature Rev. Neurosci. 2, 99–108 (2001).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Qian, Y. et al. Formation of brainstem (nor)adrenergic centers and first-order relay visceral neurons is dependent on homeodomain protein Rnx/Tlx3. Genes Dev. 15, 2533–2545 (2001).This study shows that most central NA neurons depend on Rnx3, which acts independently of Phox2a.
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Logan, C., Wingate, R. J. T. McKay, I. J. & Lumsden, A. Tlx-1 and Tlx-3 homeobox gene expression in cranial sensory ganglia and hindbrain of the chick embryo: markers of patterned connectivity. J. Neurosci. 18, 5389–5402 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Di Porzio, U., Zuddas, A., Cosenza-Murphy, D. B. & Barker, J. L. Early appearance of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive cells in the mesencephalon of mouse embryos. Int. J. Dev. Neurosci. 8, 523–532 (1990).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Placzek, M. The role of the notochord and floor plate in inductive interactions. Curr. Opin. Genet. Dev. 5, 499–506 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Matise, M. P., Epstein, D. J., Park, H. L., Platt, K. A. & Joyner, A. L. Gli2 is required for induction of floor plate and adjacent cells, but not most ventral neurons in the mouse central nervous system. Development 125, 2759–2770 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Ye, W., Shimamura, K., Rubenstein, J. L., Hynes, M. A. & Rosenthal, A. FGF and Shh signals control dopaminergic and serotonergic cell fate in the anterior neural plate. Cell 93, 755–766 (1998).This paper presents evidence for the role of extrinsic signals in providing positional information in the specification of DA and 5-HT neurons.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Semina, E. V., Murray, J. C., Reiter, R., Hrstka, R. F. & Graw, J. Deletion in the promoter region and altered expression of Pitx3 homeobox gene in aphakia mice. Hum. Mol. Genet. 9, 1575–1585 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Rieger, D. K., Reichenberger, E., McLean, W., Sidow, A. & Olsen, B. R. A double-deletion mutation in the Pitx3 gene causes arrested lens development in aphakia mice. Genomics 72, 61–72 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Smidt, M. P. et al. A homeodomain gene Ptx3 has highly restricted brain expression in mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 94, 13305–13310 (1997).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Wallen, A. et al. Fate of mesencephalic AHD2-expressing dopamine progenitor cells in Nurr1 mutant mice. Exp. Cell Res. 253, 737–746 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Smid, M. P. et al. A second independent pathway for development of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons requires Lmx1b. Nature Neurosci. 3, 337–341 (2000).This study provides genetic evidence for the essential role of Lmx1b in DA-neuron development.
  Article Google Scholar
• Zetterström, R. H. et al. Dopamine neuron agenesis in Nurr-1 deficient mice. Science 276, 248–250 (1997).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Castillo, S. O. et al. Dopamine biosynthesis is selectively abolished in substantia nigra/ventral tegmental area but not in hypothalamic neurons in mice with targeted disruption of the Nurr1 gene. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 11, 36–46 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Saucedo-Cardenas, O. et al. Nurr1 is essential for the induction of the dopaminergic phenotype and the survival of ventral mesencephalic late dopaminergic precursor neurons. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 95, 4013–4018 (1998).Together with references 62 and 63 , this paper provides genetic evidence for a crucial role of Nurr1 in DA-neuron development.
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Le, W.-D. et al. Selective agenesis of mesencephalic dopaminergic neurons in Nurr1-deficient mice. Exp. Neurol. 159, 451–458 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Witta, J. et al. Nigrostriatal innervation is preserved in Nurr1-null mice, although dopaminergic neuron precursors are arrested from terminal differentiation. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 84, 67–78 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zhou, Q.-Y. & Palmiter, R. D. Dopamine-deficient mice are severely hypoactive, adipsic, and aphagic. Cell 83, 1197–1209 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sacchetti, P., Mitchell, T. R., Granneman, J. G. & Bannon, M. J. Nurr1 enhances transcription of the human dopamine transporter gene through a novel mechanism. J. Neurochem. 76, 1565–1572 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zetterström, R. H., Williams, R., Perlmann, T. & Olson, L. Cellular expression of the immediate early transcription factors Nurr1 and NGFI-B suggests a gene regulatory role in several brain regions including the nigrostriatal dopamine system. Brain Res. Mol. Brain Res. 41, 111–120 (1996).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Wallen, A. et al. Orphan nuclear receptor Nurr1 is essential for Ret expression in midbrain dopaminergic neurons and in the brainstem. Mol. Cell. Neurosci. 18, 649–663 (2001).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Chen, H. et al. Limb and kidney defects in Lmx1b mutant mice suggest an involvement of LMX1B in human nail patella syndrome. Nature Genet. 19, 51–55 (1998).
  Article PubMed Google Scholar
• Simon, H. H., Saueressig, H., Wurst, W., Goulding, M. D. & O'Leary, D. D. M. Fate of midbrain dopaminergic neurons controlled by the engrailed genes. J. Neurosci. 21, 3126–3134 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• McCaffery, P. & Dräger, U. C. High levels of a retinoic acid-generating dehydrogenase in the meso-telencephalic dopamine system. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 91, 7772–7776 (1994).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Haselbeck, R. J., Hoffmann, I. & Duester, G. Distinct functions for Aldh1 and Raldh2 in the control of ligand production for embryonic retinoid signaling pathways. Dev. Genet. 25, 353–364 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Perlmann, T. & Jansson, L. A novel pathway for vitamin A signaling mediated by RXR heterodimerisation with NGFI-B and NURR1. Genes Dev. 9, 769–782 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Castro, D. S. et al. Induction of cell cycle arrest and morphological differentiation by Nurr1 and retinoids in dopamine MN9D cells. J. Biol. Chem. 276, 43277–43284 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Guo, S. et al. A regulator of transcriptional elongation controls vertebrate neuronal development. Nature 408, 366–369 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Sakurada, K., Ohshima-Sakurada, M., Palmer, T. D. & Gage, F. H. Nurr1, an orphan nuclear receptor, is a transcriptional activator of endogenous tyrosine hydroxylase in neural progenitor cells derived from the adult brain. Development 126, 4017–4026 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Cazorla, P., Smidt, M. P., O'Malley, K. L. & Burbach, J. P. H. A response element for the homeodomain transcription factor Ptx3 in the tyrosine hydroxylase gene promoter. J. Neurochem. 74, 1829–1837 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lebel, M., Gauthier, Y., Moreau, A. & Drouin, J. Pitx3 activates mouse tyrosine hydroxylase promoter via a high-affinity site. J. Neurochem. 77, 558–567 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Lee, S. H., Lumelsky, N., Studer, L., Auerbach, J. M. & McKay, R. D. Efficient generation of midbrain and hindbrain neurons from mouse embryonic stem cells. Nature Biotechnol. 18, 675–679 (2000).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Kawasaki, H. et al. Induction of midbrain dopaminergic neurons from ES cells by stromal cell-derived inducing activity. Neuron 28, 31–40 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Wagner, J. et al. Induction of a midbrain dopaminergic phenotype in Nurr1-overexpressing neural stem cells by type 1 astrocytes. Nature Biotechnol. 17, 653–659 (1999).
  Article CAS Google Scholar
• Briscoe, J. et al. Homeobox gene Nkx2.2 and specification of neuronal identity by graded Sonic hedgehog signalling. Nature 398, 622–627 (1999).This paper shows that the correct development of 5-HT neurons depends on Nkx2.2.
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hendricks, T., Francis, N., Fyodorov, D. & Deneris, E. S. The ETS domain factor Pet-1 is an early and precise marker of central serotoninergic neurons and interacts with a conserved element in serotonergic genes. J. Neurosci. 19, 10348–10356 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Pfaar, H. et al. mPet-1, a mouse ETS-domain transcription factor, is expressed in central serotonergic neurons. Dev. Genes Evol. 212, 43–46 (2002).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Aitken, A. R. & Törk, I. Early development of serotonin-containing neurons and pathways as seen in wholemount preparations of the fetal rat brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 274, 32–47 (1988).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Briscoe, J., Pierani, A., Jessell, T. M. & Ericson, J. A homeodomain protein code specifies progenitor cell identity and neuronal fate in the ventral neural tube. Cell 101, 435–445 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Shimamura, K., Hartigan, D. J., Martinez, S., Puelles, L. & Rubenstein, L. R. Longitudinal organization of the anterior neural plate and neural tube. Development 121, 3923–3933 (1995).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Pata, I. et al. The transcription factor GATA3 is a downstream effector of Hoxb1 specification in rhombomere 4. Development 126, 5523–5531 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hikke van Doorninck, J. et al. GATA3 is involved in the development of serotonergic neurons in the caudal raphe nuclei. J. Neurosci. 19, RC12 (1999).This paper provides genetic evidence for a role of Gata3 in the differentiation of 5-HT neurons.
  Article PubMed Central Google Scholar
• Lebrand, C. et al. Transient developmental expression of monoamine transporters in the rodent forebrain. J. Comp. Neurol. 401, 506–524 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Hansson, S. R., Mezey, E. & Hofman, B. J. Serotonin transporter messenger RNA in the developing rat brain: early expression in serotonergic neurons and transient expression in non-serotonergic neurons. Neuroscience 83, 1185–1201 (1998).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Zhou, Q., Choi, G. & Anderson, D. J. The bHLH transcription factor Olig2 promotes oligodendrocyte differentiation in collaboration with Nkx2.2. Neuron 31, 791–807 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Jessell, T. M. Neuronal specification in the spinal cord: inductive signals and transcriptional codes. Nature Rev. Genet. 1, 20–29 (2000).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Marquardt, T. & Pfaff, S. L. Cracking the transcriptional code for cell specification in the neural tube. Cell 106, 651–654 (2001).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Goridis, C. & Brunet, J.-F. Transcriptional control of neurotransmitter phenotype. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 9, 47–53 (1999).
  Article CAS PubMed Google Scholar
• Brunet, J.-F. & Pattyn, A. Phox2 genes, from patterning to connectivity. Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. (in the press).