Molecular mechanisms on carbonate, phosphate, and silica deposition in the living cell (original) (raw)

References

  1. Berki, E., Koranyi, A., Major, E., and Peres, T.: Ultrastructural study of inorganic substances in atherosclerotic aorta tissue. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4, 85–91 (1969).
    Article Google Scholar
  2. Eilberg, R. G., and Mori, K.: Calcification in vitro of human aortic tissue. Nature 216, 195–196 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  3. Ross, R., and Glomset, J. A.: Atherosclerosis and the arterial smooth muscle cell. Science 180, 1332–1339 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  4. Boyce, W. H. (Disc. leader): Kidney stone. In: Biology of hard tissue (ed. A. M. Budy), Vol. 1, pp. 196–254. New York: New York Acad. Sci. Interdic. Com. Progr. 1967.
    Google Scholar
  5. Friedlander, A. M., and Braude, A. I.: Production of bladder stones by human T mycoplasmas. Nature 247, 67–69 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  6. Baylink, D., and Wergedal, J.: Bone formation and resorption by osteocytes. In: Cellular mechanism for calcium transfer and homeostasis (eds. G. Nichols, Jr. and R. H. Wasserman). New York and London: Acad. Press 1971, 257–289.
    Google Scholar
  7. Lowenstam, H. A.: Biologic problems relating to the composition and diagenesis of sediments. In: The earth sciences: problems and progress in current research (ed. T. W. Donelly), pp. 137–195. Chicago: Chicago Press 1963. (Rice University, Semicentennial Publications).
    Google Scholar
  8. Lowenstam, H. A.: Biogeochemistry of hard tissues, their depth and possible pressure relationships. In: Barobiology and the experimental biology of the deep sea (ed. R. W. Brauer), pp. 19–32. Chapel Hill: Univ. North Carolina 1973.
    Google Scholar
  9. Budy, A. M. (ed.): Biology of hard tissue. New York Acad. Sci. Interdic. Com. Progr., New York 1967.
    Google Scholar
  10. Comar, C., and Bronner, F. (eds.): Mineral metabolism. Acad. Press, New York 1969.
    Google Scholar
  11. Collins, D.: Pathology of bone. London: Butterworth 1966.
    Google Scholar
  12. Eales, N. B. (ed.): Skeletal growth and structure in animals. Proc. Malacolog. Soc. London 38, 543–557 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  13. Defretin, R.: The tubes of polychaete annelids. In: Comprehensive biochemistry, (eds. M. Florkin and E. H. Stotz), pp. 713–747. Vol. 26C. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publ. Comp. 1971.
    Google Scholar
  14. Eastoe, J. E.: Dental enamel. In: Comprehensive biochemistry (eds. M. Florkin and E. H. Stotz), pp. 785–834. Vol. 26 C. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publ. Comp. 1971.
    Google Scholar
  15. Elliot, K., and Fitzsimons, D. W. (eds.): Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization. Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North Holland, Amsterdam-London-New York: Assoc. Sci. Publ. 1973.
    Google Scholar
  16. Erben, H. K.: Ultrastrukturen und Mineralisation rezenter und fossiler Eischalen bei Vögeln und Reptilien. Biomineralisation 1, 1–66 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  17. Erben, H. K.: über die Bildung und das Wachstum vom Perlmutt. Biomineralisation 4, 16–46 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  18. Erben, H. K.: Wie entstehen ZÄhne und Austernschalen? Umschau 74, Heft 2, 35–36 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  19. Fernandez-Madrid, F.: Collagen biosynthesis. A review. Clin. Orthop. 68, 103–181 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  20. Fleisch, H., Blackwood, H. J. J., and Owen, M. (with the assistance of M. P. Fleisch-Ronchetti) (eds.): Calcified Tissues, 1965. New York Inc.: Springer 1966.
    Google Scholar
  21. Hall, D. A. (ed.): International review of connective tissue research. New York and London: Acad. Press 1963 contn.
    Google Scholar
  22. Hancox, N. M.: Biology of bone. Cambridge: University Press 1972.
    Google Scholar
  23. Herring, G. M.: A review of recent advances in the chemistry of calcifying cartilage and bone matrix. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4, 17–23 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  24. Jope, M.: Constituents of brachiopod shells. In: Comprehensive biochemistry (eds. M. Florkin and E. H. Stotz). Vol. 26C. Amsterdam: Elsevier Publ. Comp. 1971, 749–784.
    Google Scholar
  25. Kennedy, W. J., Taylor, J. D., and Hall, A.: Environmental and biological controls on bivalve shell mineralogy. Biol. Rev. 44, 499–530 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  26. Kitano, Y.: On factors influencing the polymorphic crystallization of calcium carbonate found in marine biological systems. In: Recent researches in the fields of hydrosphere, atmosphere, and nuclear geochemistry. Tokyo, 1964, 305–319.
    Google Scholar
  27. MacIntyre, I.: Calcitonin: A general review. Calc. Tiss. Res. I, 173–190 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  28. McConnell, D.: Apatite. Its crystal chemistry, mineralogy and biologic occurrences. Wien-New York: Springer 1973.
    Google Scholar
  29. McLean, F. C., and Urist, M. R.: Fundamentals of the physiology of skeletal tissue. Chicago: Univ. Chicago Press 1968.
    Google Scholar
  30. McLean, F. C., and Urist, M. R.: Calcified tissue research. Calc. Tiss. Res. I, 1–7 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  31. Miller, E. J., and Martin, G. R.: The collagen of bone. Clin. Orthop. 59, 195–232 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  32. Milliman, J. D.: Marine Carbonates. Berlin-Heidelberg-New York: Springer 1974.
    Google Scholar
  33. Moss, M. L., Whipple, H. E., and Silverzweig, S. (ds.): Comparative biology of calcified tissue. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 109, 1–410 (1963).
    Google Scholar
  34. Mutvei, H.: On the micro-and ultrastructure of the conchiolin in the nacreous layer of some recent and fossil molluses. Acta Univer. Stockholmiensis, Stockholm Contr. Geol. 20, 1–17 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  35. Nichols, G. Jr., and Wasserman, R. H. (eds.): Cellular mechanism for calcium transfer and homcostasis. New York and London: Acad. Press 1971.
    Google Scholar
  36. Ramanathan, N. (ed.): Collagen. New York-London: Interscience Publishers 1962.
    Google Scholar
  37. Schraer, H. (ed.): Biological calcification. Cellular and molecular aspects. Amsterdam: North Holland Publishing Co. 1970.
    Google Scholar
  38. Selye, H.: Calciphylaxis. Chicago: Chicago Press Ill. (1962).
    Google Scholar
  39. Sognnaes, R. F. (ed.): Calcification in biological systems. Washington D. C.: Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 64, 1960.
    Google Scholar
  40. Sognnaes, R. F. (ed.): Mechanisms of hard tissue destruction. Washington, D. C.: Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci. Publ. 75, 1963.
    Google Scholar
  41. Thiele, H.: Histolyse und Histogenese. Frankfurt/Main: Akad. Verlagsgesellschaft 1967.
    Google Scholar
  42. Towc, K. M., and Cifelli, R.: Wall ultrastructure in the calcareous foraminifera: Crystallographic aspects and a model for calcification. J. Paleontol. 41, 742–776 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  43. Towe, K. M., and Cifelli, R.: Invertebrate shell structure and the organic matrix concept. Biomineralisation 4, 1–14 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  44. Vaughan, J. M.: The physiology of bone. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1970.
    Google Scholar
  45. Wilbur, K. M., and Simkiss, K.: Calcified shells. In: Comprehensive biochemistry (eds. M. Florkin and E. H. Stotz), pp. 229–295. Vol. 26C, Amsterdam: Elsevier Publ. Comp. (1971).
    Google Scholar
  46. Wise, S. W.: Scanning electron microscope study of molluscan shell ultrastructures. Urbana Champaign: Ph. D. Thesis University of Illinois 1970, 145.
    Google Scholar
  47. Zipkin, I. (ed.): Biological mineralization. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  48. Matheja, J., and Degens, E. T.: Structural molecular biology of phosphates Stuttgart: Gustav Fischer Verlag 1971.
    Google Scholar
  49. Richards, S., Pedersen, B., Silverton, J. V., and Hoard, J. L.: Stereochemistry of ethylenediaminetetraacetato complexes. Inorg. Chem. 3, 27–33 (1964).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  50. Boedtker, H.: Configurational properties of tobacco mosaic virus ribonucleic acid. J. Mol. Biol. 2, 171–188 (1960).
    CAS Google Scholar
  51. Felsenfeld, G., and Huang, S.: The interaction of polynucleotides with cations. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 34, 234–242 (1959).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  52. Michelson, A. M., Massoulie, J., and Guschelbauer, W.: Synthetic polynucleotides. Progr. Nucleic acid Res. Mol. Biol. 6, 83–141 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  53. Felsenfeld, G., and Rich, A.: Studies of the formation of two-and three-stranded polyribonucleotides. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 26, 457–468 (1957).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  54. Felsenfeld, G., Davies, D. R., and Rich, A.: Formation of a three-stranded polynucleotide molecule. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 79, 2023–2024 (1957).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  55. Rich, A.: Molecular structure of the nucleic acids. Rev. Mod. Phys. 31, 191–199 (1959).
    CAS Google Scholar
  56. Dervichian, D. G.: The physical chemistry of phospholipids. Progr. Biophys. Molec. Biol. 14, 263–342 (1964).
    CAS Google Scholar
  57. Braude, E. A., and Nachod, F. C. (eds.): Determination of organic structure by physical methods. New York: Acad. Press, Inc. Publishers 1955.
    Google Scholar
  58. Parsegian, V. A.: Forces between lecithin bimolecular leaflets are due to a disordered surface layer. Science 156, 939–942 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  59. Shinoda, K., Nakagawa, T., Tamamushi, B.-I., and Isemura, T.: Colloidal surfactants. Some physicochemical properties. New York and London: Acad. Press 1963.
    Google Scholar
  60. Wolstenholme, G. A., and Schulman, J. H.: Metal-monolayer interactions in aqueous systems. Part I. The interaction of monolayers of longchain polar compounds with metal ions in the underlying solution. Trans. Faraday Soc. 46, 475–487 (1950).
    CAS Google Scholar
  61. Wolstenholme, G. A., and Schulman, J. H.: Metal-monolayer interactions in aqueous systems. Part III. Steric effects with branched chain fatty acid monolayers. Trans. Faraday Soc. 47, 788–794 (1951).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  62. Reiss-Husson, F., and Luzzati, V.: Phase transitions in lipids in relation to the structure of membranes. Adv. in Biol. Medical Physis II, 87–105 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  63. Finean, J. B.: X-ray diffraction studies on the polymorphism of phospholipids. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 10, 371–384 (1953).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  64. Beevers, C. A.: The crystal structure of dicalcium phosphate dihydrate, CaHPO4·2H2O. Acta Cryst. 11, 273–277 (1958).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  65. MacLennan, G., and Beevers, C. A.: The crystal structure of monocalcium phosphate monohydrate, Ca(H2PO4)·H2O. Acta Cryst. 9, 187–190 (1956).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  66. Bretscher, M. S.: Membrane structure: Some general principles. Science 181, 622–629 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  67. Engelhardt, W. von: Beeinflussung des Kristallwachstums durch grenzflÄchenaktive Stoffe. III. Intern. Kongr. GrenzflÄchenaktive Stoffe, Bd. II, Sekt. B., S. 202–217 (1960).
    Google Scholar
  68. Engelhardt, W. von, and Haussühl, S.: Schleiffestigkeit und spezifische freie GrenzflÄchenenergie der Alkalihalogenide vom NaCl-Typus. Kolloid Ztschr. 173, 20–35 (1960).
    CAS Google Scholar
  69. Knacke, O., and Stranski, I. N.: Kristalltracht und Adsorption. Ztschr. Elektrochemie 60, 816–822 (1956).
    CAS Google Scholar
  70. Neuhaus, A.: Kristalline Korrosionsschichten und Korrosions-Schutzschichten auf Metallen und ihre EpitaxieverhÄltnisse. Coll. Intern. Centre Nat. Rech. Sci. 152, 675–700 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  71. Neuhaus, A., and Beckmann, H.: Der Einflu\ von Eiwei\lösungsgenossen auf Keimbildung von CuCl2·2H2O in wÄsserigen Lösungen. Kolloid-Zeitschr. u. Ztschr. f. Polym. 182, 121–123 (1962).
    CAS Google Scholar
  72. White, J. C., Elmes, P. C., Balashov, V., Preston, R. D., and Ripley, G. W.: A lattice distortion of alkali chloride crystals in the presence of nucleoprotein microfibrils. Nature 180, 696–697 (1957).
    CAS Google Scholar
  73. Aigrain, P., and Dougas, C.: Adsorption sur les semi-conducteurs. Ztschr. Elektrochem. 56, 363–366 (1952).
    CAS Google Scholar
  74. Clark, A.: Oxides of the transition metals as catalysts. Ind. Eng-Chem. 45, 1476–1480 (1953).
    CAS Google Scholar
  75. Eucken, A.: Untersuchungen über Kontaktanalyse. Naturwiss. 36, 48–53 and 74–81 (1949).
    CAS Google Scholar
  76. Garner, W. E., Gray, T. J., and Stone, E. S.: The oxidation of copper and the reaction of hydrogen and carbon monoxide with copper oxide. Proc. Roy. Soc. London A. 197, 294–314 (1949).
    Google Scholar
  77. Gray, T. J., and Darby, P. W.: Semi-conductivity and catalysis in the nickel oxide system. J. Phys. Chem. 60, 209–217 (1956).
    CAS Google Scholar
  78. Hauffe, K., and Engell, H. J.: Zum Mechanismus der Chemisorption vom Standpunkt der Fehlordnungstheorie. Ztschr. Elektrochem. 56, 366–373 (1952).
    CAS Google Scholar
  79. Houghton, G., and Winter, E. R. S.: Exchange reactions of solid oxides. Part III. Magnesium oxide. J. Chem. Soc., 1954, 1509–1516.
    Google Scholar
  80. Stone, F. S.: The chemistry of the solid state. London: Butterworth 1955.
    Google Scholar
  81. Weisz, P. B.: Effect of electronic charge transfer between adsorbate and solid on chemisorption and catalysis. J. Chem. Phys. 21, 1531–1538 (1953).
    CAS Google Scholar
  82. Winter, E. R. S.: The oxidation of copper and zinc. J. Chem. Soc. 1954, 3342–3344.
    Google Scholar
  83. Fischer, E. W.: Orientierte Kristallisation des PolyÄthylens auf Steinsalz. Kolloid-Ztschr. 159, 108–118 (1958).
    CAS Google Scholar
  84. Ambady, G. K.: Studies on collagen. III. Oriented crystallisation of inorganic salt on collagen. Proc. Ind. Acad. Sci. 49, 136–143 (1959).
    Google Scholar
  85. Niedermayer, R., and Mayer, H. (eds.): Basic problems in thin film physics. Proc. Intern. Symp. Clausthal-Göttingen 6–11. Sept. 1965, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht 1966.
    Google Scholar
  86. Neuhaus, A.: über Keimbildung und orientierten Stoffabsatz auf artfremden kristallinen OberflÄchen. Ztschr. Elektrochem. 56, 453–458 (1952).
    CAS Google Scholar
  87. Menzel-Kopp, C.: Neue Forderungen über die Epitaxie: Die Reliefbedingungen. Ztschr. Naturforschung 21a, 1247–1251 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  88. Neuhaus, A.: Orientierte Kristallabscheidung (Epitaxie). Angew. Chem. 64, 158–162 (1952).
    CAS Google Scholar
  89. Haurowitz, F.: Biosynthese der Proteine und ihre Beeinflussung durch Antigene. Naturwiss. 46, 60–63 (1959).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  90. Calvin, M.: Evolution of enzymes and the photosynthetic apparatus. Science 130, 1170–1175 (1959).
    CAS Google Scholar
  91. Calvin, M.: From microstructure to macrostructure and function in the photochemical apparatus. Brookhaven Nat. Lab. Symp. Biol. 11, 160–180 (1958).
    Google Scholar
  92. Latimer, W. M.: Oxidation potentials. Englewood Cliffs N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc. 1959.
    Google Scholar
  93. Fyfe, W. S., and Bischoff, J. L.: The calcite-aragonite problem. Soc. Econ. Paleontol. Mineral., Spez. Publ. 13, 3–13 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  94. Bischoff, J. L., and Fyfe, J. L.: Catalysis, inhibition and the calcite-aragonite problem. I. The aragonite calcite transformation. Amer. J. Sci. 266, 65–79 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  95. Gregoire, Ch., and Lorent, R.: Alterations in conchiolin matrices of mother-of-pearl during conversion of aragonite into calcite under experimental conditions of pyrolysis and pressure. Biomineralisation 6, 70–83 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  96. Gregoire, Ch., Gisbourne, C. M., and Hardy, A.: über experimentelle Diagenese der Nautilusschale. Beitr. elektronenmikroskop. Dir. Oberfl. 2, 223–238 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  97. Voss-Foucart, M. F., and Gregoire, Ch.: On biochemical and structural alterations in fossil and pyrolysed modern mother-of-pearl. Biomineralisation 6, 134–140 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  98. Jackson, T. A., and Bischoff, J. L.: The influence of amino acids on the kinetics of the recrystallization of aragonite to calcite. J. Geol. 79, 493–497 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  99. Seifert, H.: Zur Kristallisation von Hochpolymeren an kristallinen GrenzflÄchen. Kolloid Ztschr. und Ztschr. Polym. 224, 97–124 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  100. Seifert, H.: Matrizenprinzip und Biogenese des Kalks. Biomineralisation 6, 107–133 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  101. Degens, E. T., and Matheja, J.: Formation of polymers on inorganic templates. In: Prebiotic and Biochemical Evolution (eds. A. P. Kimball and J. Oró), pp. 39–60. Amsterdam: North Holland 1971.
    Google Scholar
  102. Degens, E. T.: Synthesis of organic matter in the presence of silicate and lime. Chem. Geol. 13, 1–10 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  103. Chave, K. E.: Mineral particles suspended in surface seawater: Preliminary report. Marine Science Center, Lehigh Univers. Bethlehem, Pennsylv. 1965, 1–21.
    Google Scholar
  104. Chave, K. E.: Carbonates: Association with organic matter in surface seawater. Science 148, 1723–1724 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  105. Chave, K. E.: Carbonate-organic interaction in seawater. In: Organic matter in natural waters (ed. D. W. Hood). Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Alaska, Occasional Publ. 1, 373–385 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  106. Chave, K. E., and Suess, E.: Suspended minerals in seawater. New York Acad. Sci. Trans. ser. 2, 29, 991–1000 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  107. Suess, E.: Interaction of organic compounds with calcium carbonate. I. Association phenomena and geochemical implications. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 34, 157–168 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  108. Meyers, P. A., and Quinn, J. G.: Interaction between fatty acids and calcite in seawater. Limnol. Oceanogr. 16, 992–997 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  109. Mitterer, R. M.: Calcified proteins in the sedimentary environment. Adv. Org. Geochem. 5, 441–451 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  110. Mitterer, R. M.: Biogeochemistry of aragonite mud and oolites. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 36, 1407–1422 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  111. Mopper, K., and Degens, E. T.: Aspects of the biogeochemistry of carbohydrates and proteins in aquatic environments. Techn. Rep. WHOI-72-68, Woods Hole Oceanogr. Inst., Woods Hole, Mass., pp. 118 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  112. Armstrong, W. D., and Singer, L.: Composition and constitution of the mineral phase of bone. Clin. Orthop. 38, 179–190 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  113. Garrels, R. M., and Christ, C. L.: Solutions, minerals, and equilibria. New York: Harper and Row 1965.
    Google Scholar
  114. Skirrow, G.: The dissolved gases — carbon dioxide. In: Chemical oceanography (eds. J. P. Riley and G. Skirrow), Vol. I, pp. 227–322. Acad. Press 1965.
    Google Scholar
  115. Culberson, C., and Pytkowicz, R. M.: Effect of pressure on carbonic acid, boric acid, and the pH in seawater. Limnol. Oceanogr. 13, 403–417 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  116. Pytkowicz, R. M.: Calcium carbonate saturation in the ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10, 220–225 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  117. Pytkowicz, R. M., Disteche, A., and Disteche, S.: Calcium carbonate solubility in seawater at in situ pressures. Earth. Plan. Sci. Letters 2, 430–432 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  118. Deffeyes, S.: Carbonate equilibria: A graphic and algebraic approach. Limnol. Oceanogr. 10, 412–426 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  119. Berner, R. A.: Activity coefficients of bicarbonate, carbonate and calcium ions in seawater. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 29, 947–965 (1965).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  120. Berner, R. A.: The role of magnesium in the crystal growth of calcite and aragonite from seawater. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 39, 489–504 (1975).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  121. Pytkowicz, R. M.: Rates of inorganic calcium carbonate nucleation. J. Geol. 73, 196–199 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  122. Pytkowicz, R. M., and Fowler, G. A.: Solubility of foraminifera in seawater at high pressures. Geochim. J. 1, 169–182 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  123. Hudson, J. D.: Speculations on the depth relations of calcium carbonate solution in recent and ancient seas. Mar. Geol. 5, 473–480 (1967).
    Article Google Scholar
  124. Ben-Yaakov, S., Ruth, E., and Kaplan, I. R.: Carbonate compensation depth: Relation to carbonate solubility in ocean waters. Science 184, 982–984 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  125. Chave, K. E., and Suess, E.: Calcium carbonate saturation in seawater: Effects of dissolved organic matter. Limnol. Oceanogr. 15, 633–637 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  126. Suess, E., and Fütterer, D.: Aragonitic ooides: Experimental precipitation from seawater in the presence of humic acid. Sedimentol. 19, 129–139 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  127. Kitano, Y., Kanamori, N., and Tokuyama, A.: Influence of organic matter on inorganic precipitation. In: Organic matter in natural waters (ed. D. W. Hood). Inst. Mar. Sci. Univ. Alaska, Occasional Publ. 1, 413–447 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  128. Towe, K. M., and Malone, P. G.: Precipitation of metastable carbonate phases from seawater. Nature 226, 348–349 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  129. Pytkowicz, R. M., and Kester, D. R.: Relative calcium phosphate saturation in two regions of the North Pacific ocean. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12, 714–718 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  130. Kester, D. R., and Pytkowicz, R. M.: Determination of the apparent dissociation constants of phosphoric acid in seawater. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12, 243–252 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  131. Dietz, R. S., Emery, K. O., and Shepard, F. P.: Phosphorite deposits on the sea floor off southern California. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 53, 815–848 (1942).
    CAS Google Scholar
  132. Kramer, J. R.: Equilibrium models and composition of the Great Lakes. In: Equilibrium concepts in natural water systems (ed. R. F. Gould) Amer. Chem. Soc. Publ. Adv. Chem. Ser. 67, 243–254 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  133. Roberson, C. E.: Solubility implications of apatite in sea water. M. S. Thesis, Univ. California, San Diego, Calif. 1965.
    Google Scholar
  134. Tooms, J. S., Summerhayes, C. P., and Cronan, D. S.: Geochemistry of marine phosphate and manganese deposits. Oceanogr. Mar. Biol. Ann. Rev. 7, 49–100 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  135. Kato, K., and Kitano, Y.: Solubility and dissolution rate of amorphous silica in distilled and sea water at 20 ‡C. J. Oceanogr. Soc. Japan 24, 147–152 (1968).
    Google Scholar
  136. Stöber, W.: Formation of silicic acid in aqueous suspensions of different silica modifications. In: Equilibrium concepts in natural water systems (ed. R. F. Gould). Amer. Chem. Soc. Publ. Adv. Chem. Ser. 67, 161–182 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  137. Bramlette, M. N.: The Monterey formation of California and the origin of its siliceous rocks. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 212, 1–55 (1946).
    Google Scholar
  138. Krauskopf, K. B.: Dissolution and precipitation of silica at low temperatures. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 10, 1–26 (1956).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  139. Okamoto, G., Okura, T., and Goto, K.: Properties of silica in water. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 12, 123–132 (1957).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  140. Alexander, G. B., Heston, W. M., and Iler, H. K.: The solubility of amorphous silica in water. J. Phys. Chem. 58, 453–455 (1954).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  141. Maren, T. H.: Carbonic anhydrase: Chemistry, physiology, and inhibition. Physiolog. Rev. 47, 595–780 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  142. Carter, M. J.: Carbonic anhydrase: Isoenzymes, properties, distribution, and functional significance. Biol. Rev. 47, 405–513 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  143. Coleman, J. E.: Mechanism of action of carbonic anhydrase, substrate, sulfonamide, and anion binding. J. Biol. Chem. 242, 5212–5219 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  144. Edsall, J.: Multiple molecular forms of carbonic anhydrase in erythrocytes. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1968, 41–63.
    Google Scholar
  145. Lin, K.-T. D., and Deutsch, H. F.: Human carbonic anhydrases. X. Preparation of large peptide fragments of carbonic anhydrase B used for sequence studies. J. Biol. Chem. 248, 1881–1884 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  146. Lin, K.-T. D., and Deutsch, H. F.: Human carbonic anhydrases. XI. The complete primary structure of carbonic anhydrase B. J. Biol. Chem. 248, 1885–1893 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  147. Liljas, A., Kannan, K. K., Bergsten, P.-C., Waara, I., Fridborg, K., Strandberg, B., Carlbom, U., JÄrup, L., Lövgren, S., and Petef, M.: Crystal structure of human carbonic anhydrase C. Nature New Biology 235, 131–137 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  148. Kannan, K. K., Liljas, A., Waara, I., Bergsten, P.-C., Lövgren, S., Strandberg, B., Bengtsson, U., Carlbom, U., Fridborg, K., JÄrup, L., and Petef, M.: Crystal structure of human erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase C. VI. The three-dimensional structure at high resolution in relation to other mammalian carbonic anhydrases. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 36, 221–231 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  149. Kannan, K. K., Notstrand, B., Fridborg, K., Lövgren, S., Ohlson, A., and Petef, M.: Crystal structure of human erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase B. Three-dimensional structure at a nominal 2.2-å resolution: Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 72, 51–55 (1975).
    CAS Google Scholar
  150. Pocker, Y., and Meany, J. E.: The catalytic versatility of erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase. I. Kinetic studies of the enzyme catalysed hydration of acetaldehyde. Biochemistry 4, 2535–2541 (1965).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  151. Pocker, Y., and Meany, J. E.: The catalytic versatility of erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase. II. Kinetic studies of the enzyme-catalysed hydration of pyridine aldehydes. Biochemistry 6, 239–246 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  152. Verpoorte, J. A., Metha, S., and Edsall, J. T.: Esterase activities of human carbonic anhydrases B and C. J. Biol. Chem. 242, 4221–4229 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  153. Pocker, Y., and Guilbert, L. J.: Carbonic anhydrase catalysed hydrolysis and decarboxylation. Kinetic studies of enzyme-catalysed decomposition of mono-and disubstituted derivatives of carbonic acid. Biochemistry 13, 70–78 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  154. Riepe, M. E., and Wang, J. H.: Infrared studies on the mechanism of action of carbonic anhydrase. J. Biol. Chem. 243, 2779–2787 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  155. Wang, J. H.: Directional character of proton transfer in enzyme catalysis. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 66, 874–881 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  156. Wang, J. H.: Facilitated proton transfer in enzyme catalysis. Science 161, 328–334 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  157. Khalifah, R. G.: The carbon dioxide hydration activity of carbonic anhydrase. I. Stopflow kinetic studies on the native human isoenzymes B and C. J. Biol. Chem. 246, 2561–2573 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  158. Koenig, S. H., and Brown, R. D.: H2CO3 as substrate for carbonic anhydrase in the dehydration of HCO −3 . Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 2422–2425 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  159. Taylor, P. W., and Burgen, A. S. V.: Kinetics of carbonic anhydrase inhibitor complex formation. A comparison of anion-and sulfonamide-binding mechanisms. Biochemistry 10, 3859–3866 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  160. Taylor, P. W., Feeney, J., and Burgen, A. S. V.: Investigation of the mechanism of ligand binding with cobalt (II) human carbonic anhydrase by 1H and 19F nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biochemistry 10, 3866–3875 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  161. Taylor, J. S., and Coleman, J. E.: Nitrogen ligands at the active site of alkaline phosphatase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 69, 859–862 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  162. Lazdunski, Cl., Chappelet, D., Petitclerc, Cl., Letterrier, F., Douzou, P., and Lazdunski, M.: The Cu2+-alkaline phosphatase of Escherichia coli. Eur. J. Biochem. 17, 239–245 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  163. Applebury, M. L., and Coleman, J. E.: Escherichia coli alkaline phosphatase. Metal binding, protein conformation, and quaternary structure. J. Biol. Chem. 244, 308–318 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  164. Csopak, H., and Falk, K. E.: The specific binding of copper (II) to alkaline phosphatase of E. coli. FEBS Letters 7, 147–150 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  165. Applebury, M. L., Johnson, B. B., and Coleman, J. E.: Phosphate binding to alkaline phosphatase. Metal ion dependence. J. Biol. Chem. 245, 4968–4976 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  166. Harris, M. I., and Coleman, J. E.: The biosynthesis of apo-and metalloalkaline phosphatases of Escherichia coll. J. Biol. Chem. 243, 5063–5073 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  167. Matheja, J., and Degens, E. T.: Function of amino acid side chains. Adv. Enzym. 34, 1–39 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  168. Woltgens, J. H. M., Bonting, W. L., and Bijvoet, O. L. M.: Relationship of inorganic pyrophosphatase and alkaline phosphatase activities in hamster molars. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 333–343 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  169. Eaton, R. H., and Moss, D. W.: Inhibition of orthophosphatase and pyrophosphatase activities of human phosphatase preparation. Biochem. J. 102, 917–921 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  170. Fleisch, H., and Russell, R. G. G.: Pyrophosphate and polyphosphate. In: International encyclopedia of pharmacology and therapeutics, pp. 61–100. Oxford: Pergamon Press 1970.
    Google Scholar
  171. Anderson, H. C.: Calcium-accumulating vesicles in the intercellular matrix of bone. (Disc. R. G. G. Russell, pp. 229–232). In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliot and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 213–246. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North Holland Ass. Sci. Publ. 1973.
    Google Scholar
  172. Dixit, P. K.: Quantitative histochemistry of cartilage. Alkaline phosphatase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity in different zones of rachitic rat cartilage during healing. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 49–57 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  173. Salomon, C. D.: A fine structural study on the extracellular activity of alkaline phosphatase and its role in calcification. Calc. Tiss. Res. 15, 201–212 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  174. Cuthbert, A. W. (ed.): Calcium and cellular function. New York: St. Martin's Press. Inc. 1970.
    Google Scholar
  175. Drabikowski, W., Strzelecka-Golaszewska, H., and Carafoli, E. (eds.): Calcium binding proteins. Proc. Int. Symp. Jablonna July 9–12, 1973, Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. Comp. Warszawa and PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  176. Bygrave, F. L.: Cellular calcium and magnesium metabolism. In: An introduction to bioinorganic chemistry (ed. D. R. Williams). London: Butterworth in press.
    Google Scholar
  177. Anderson, J. M., Charbonneau, H., and Cormier, M. J.: Mechanism of calcium induction of Renilla bioluminescence. Involvement of a calcium-triggered luciferin binding protein. Biochemistry 13, 1195–1200 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  178. Martonosi, A., Boland, R., and Halpin, R. A.: The biosynthesis of sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes and the mechanism of calcium transport. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 37, 455–468 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  179. Martonosi, A., Boland, A. R. D., Boland, R., Vanderkooi, J. M., and Halpin, R. A.: The mechanism of Ca transport and the permeability of sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes. In: Myocardial biology: recent advances in studies on cardiac structure and metabolism (ed. N. S. Dhalla) Vol. 4, pp. 473–494, Baltimore: Univers. Park Press (1974).
    Google Scholar
  180. MacLennan, D. H., and Holland, P. C.: Calcium transport in sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ann. Rev. Biophys. Broeng. 4 (1975).
    Google Scholar
  181. Meissner, G., and Fleischer, S.: Characterization, dissociation and reconstitution of sarcoplasmic reticulum. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 281–313. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. Comp., and Warszawa PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  182. MacLennan, D. H., Yip, C. C., Iles, G. H., and Seeman, P.: Isolation of sarcoplasmic reticulum proteins. Cold Spring Harbor Symp. Quant. Biol. 37, 469–477 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  183. Ikemoto, N., Nagy, B., Bhatnagar, G. M., and Gergely, J.: Localization of Ca-binding sites in two proteins of the sarcoplasmic reticulum. In: calcium binding Proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H., Strzelecka-Golaszweska and E. Carafoli), pp. 403–424. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ., and Warszawa PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  184. Sarzala, M. G., Zubrzycka, E., and Drabikowski, W.: Characterization of the constituents of sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli, pp. 315–346. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. Comp. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  185. Martonosi, A., Pucell, A. G., and Halpin, R. A.: Recent observation on the mechanism of Ca2+ transport by fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes. In: Cellular mechanisms for calcium transfer and homeostasis (eds. G. Nichols, Jr. and R. H. Wasserman), pp. 175–193. New York and London: Acad. Press 1971.
    Google Scholar
  186. Martonosi, A., Lagwinska, E., and Oliver, M.: Elementary processes in the hydrolysis of ATP by sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 227, 549–567 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  187. Scandella, C. J., Devaux, P., and McConnell, H. M.: Rapid lateral diffusion of phospholipids in rabbit sarcoplasmic reticulum. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A 69, 2056–2060 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  188. Scarpa, A., Baldassare, J., and Inesi, G.: The effect of calcium ionophores on fragmented sarcoplasmic reticulum. J. Gen. Physiol. 60, 735–749 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  189. Inesi, G., Millman, M., and, Eletr, S.: Temperature-induced transitions of function and structure in sarcoplasmic reticulum membranes. J. Mol. Biol. 81, 483–504 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  190. Esfahani, M., Limbrick, A. R., Knutton, S., Oka, T., and Wakil, S. J.: The molecular organization of lipids in the membrane of Escherichia coli: Phase transitions. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 68, 3180–3184 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  191. Nakajima, Y., and Endo, M.: Release of calcium induced by “depolarisation” of the sarcoplasmic reticulum membrane. Nature New Biology 246, 216–218 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  192. Murray, J. M., and Weber, A.: The cooperative action of muscle proteins. Scientific American 1974, 59–71 (Febr.).
    Google Scholar
  193. Weber, A., and Murray, J. M.: Molecular control mechanisms in muscle contraction. Physiol. Rev. 53, 612–673 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  194. Ashley, C. C.: Calcium und die Skelettmuskel Aktivierung. Endeavour 30, 18–25 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  195. Szent-Györgyi, A. G., Szentkiralyi, E. M., and Kendrick-Jones, J.: The light chains of scallop myosin as regulatory subunits. J. Mol. Biol. 74, 179–203 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  196. Drabikowski, W., Barylko, B., Dabroska, R., Nowak, E., and Szpacenko, A.: Studies on the properties of TN-C component of troponin and on its effect on the interaction between the constituents of thin filament. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 69–107. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  197. Margossian, S. S., and Cohen, C.: Troponin subunit interactions. J. Mol. Biol. 81, 409–413 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  198. Fuchs, F.: Chemical properties of the calcium receptor site of troponin as determined from binding studies. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 1–27. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  199. Ebashi, S., Ohnishi, S., Abe, S., and Maruyama, K.: Ca-dependent interaction of troponin components as the basis of the control mechanism by Ca ion. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 179–196. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  200. Hartshorne, D. J., and Boucher, L. J.: Ion binding by troponin. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 29–49. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  201. Potter, J. D., Seidel, J. C., Leavis, P. C., Lehrer, S. S., and Gergely, J.: Interaction of Ca2+ with troponin. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 129–152. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  202. Winter, M. R. C., Head, J. F., and Perry, S. V.: Conformational changes and complex formation by troponin C. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 109–127. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  203. Collins, J. H., Potter, J. D., Horn, M. C. J., Wilshire, G., and Jackman, N.: The amino acid sequence of rabbit skeletal muscle troponin C: Gene replication and homology with calciumbinding proteins from carp and hake muscle. FEBS Letters 36, 268–272 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  204. Collins, J. H.: Homology of myosin light chains, troponin-C and parvalbumins deduced from comparison of their amino acid sequences. Biochem. Biophysic. Res. Comm. 58, 301–308 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  205. Collins, J. H., Potter, J. D., Horn, M. J., Wilshire, G., and Jackman, N.: Structural studies on rabbit skeletal muscle troponin C.: Evidence for gene replication and homology with calcium binding proteins from carp and hake muscle. In: calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 51–63. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  206. Kretsinger, R. H.: Gene triplication deduced from the tertiary structure of a muscle calcium binding protein. Nature New Biol. 240, 85–88 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  207. Tufty, R. M., and Kretsinger, R. H.: Troponin and parvalbumin calcium binding regions predicted in myosin light chain and T4 lysozyme. Science 187, 167–169 (1975).
    CAS Google Scholar
  208. Kretsinger, R. H., and Nockolds, C. E.: Carp muscle calcium-binding protein. J. Biol. Chem. 248, 3313–3326 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  209. Davis, W. L.: An electron microscopic study of myofilament calcium binding sites in native, EGTA-chelated and calcium reloaded glycerolated mammalian skeletal muscle. Calc. Tiss. Res. 14, 139–152 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  210. Kendrick-Jones, J.: Role of myosin light chains in calcium regulation. Nature 249, 631–634 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  211. Frank, G., and Weeds, A. G.: The amino-acid sequence of the alkali light chains of rabbit skeletal-muscle myosin. Eur. J. Biochem. 44, 317–334 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  212. Abelson, P. H.: Geochemistry of organic substances. In: Researches in geochemistry (ed. P. H. Abelson), pp. 79–103. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1959.
    Google Scholar
  213. Hare, P. E., and Abelson, P. H.: Proteins in mollusk shells. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Year Book 63, 267–270 (1964).
    Google Scholar
  214. Hare, P. E., and Abelson, P. H.: Amino acid composition of some calcified proteins. Carnegie Inst. Washington, Year Book 64, 223–231 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  215. Hare, P. E.: The amino acid composition of the organic matrix of some recent and fossil shells of some west coast species of Mytilus. Ph. D. Thesis California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, Cal. (1962).
    Google Scholar
  216. Hare, P. E.: Geochemistry of proteins, peptides, and amino acids. In: Organic geochemistry (eds. G. Eglinton and M. T. J. Murphy), pp. 438–463. New York: Springer Verlag 1969.
    Google Scholar
  217. Saleuddin, A. S. M., and Hare, P. E.: Amino acid compositions of normal and regenerated shell of Helix. Can. J. Zool. 48, 886–888 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  218. King, K., and Hare, P. E.: Amino acid composition of planktonic foraminifera: A paleobiochemical approach to evolution. Science 175, 1461–1463 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  219. King, K., and Hare, P. E.: Amino acid composition of the test as a taxonomic character for living and fossil planktonic foraminifera. Micropaleontology 18, 285–293 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  220. Piez, K. A.: The amino acid chemistry of some calcified tissues. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 109, 256–268 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  221. Krampitz, G., Erben, H. K., and Kriesten, K.: über AminosÄurenzusammensetzung und Struktur von Eischalen. Biomineralisation 4, 87–99 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  222. Ghiselin, M. T., Degens, E. T., Spencer, D. W., and Parker, R. H.: A phylogenetic survey of molluscan shell proteins. Harvard Coll. Mus. Comp. Zool. Breviora 262, 1–35 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  223. Degens, E. T., Spencer, D. W., and Parker, R. H.: Paleobiochemistry of molluscan shell proteins. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 20, 533–579 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  224. Husseini, S. I.: Temporal and diagenetic modifications of the amino acid composition of Pleistocene coral skeletons. Ph. D. Thesis Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island (1973).
    Google Scholar
  225. Mitterer, R. M.: Comparative amino acid composition of calcified and non-calcified polychaete worm tubes. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 38B, 405–409 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  226. Meenakshi, V. R., Hare, P. E., and Wilbur, K. M.: Amino acids of the organic matrix of neogastropod shells. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 40B, 1037–1043 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  227. Westbroek, P., de Jong, E. W., Dam, W., and Bosch, L.: Soluble intracrystalline polysaccharides from coccoliths of Coccolithus huxleyi (Lohmann) Kamptner (I). Calc. Tiss. Res. 12, 227–238 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  228. de Jong, E. W.: Isolation and characterization of polysaccharides associated with coccoliths. A paleobiochemical study. Ph. D.-Thesis University of Leiden, Holland (June 1975).
    Google Scholar
  229. Husseini, S. I., and Mopper, K.: Amino acid and sugar composition of Pleistocene and Recent skeletons of the coral Acropora palmata: unpublished manuscript.
    Google Scholar
  230. Matheja, J. (pers. com.).
    Google Scholar
  231. Degens, E. T., Deuser, W. G., and Haedrich, R. L.: Molecular structure and composition of fish otoliths. Mar. Biol. 2, 105–113 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  232. Meyer, R. J.: Hemocyanins and the systematics of California Haliotis. Ph. D.-Thesis, Stanford Univ. (1967).
    Google Scholar
  233. Degens, E. T., Johannesson, B. W., and Meyer, R. W.: Mineralization processes in molluscs and their paleontological significance. Naturwissenschaften 54, 638–640 (1967).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  234. Crenshaw, M. A.: The soluble matrix from Mercenaria mercenaria shell. Biomineralisation 6, 6–11 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  235. Warwicker, J. O.: The crystal structure of silk fibroin. Acta Cryst. 7, 565–573 (1954).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  236. Shoemaker, D. P., Barieau, R. E., Donohue, J., and Chia-Si, L.: The crystal structure of DL-serine. Acta Cryst. 6, 241–256 (1953).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  237. Warner, D. T.: Proteins may have hexagonal structure. Rep. Art. C. & En. 1964, 53–54.
    Google Scholar
  238. Towe, K. M., and Thompson, G. R.: The structure of some bivalve shell carbonates prepared by ion-beam thinning. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 38–48 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  239. Erben, H. K., and Watabe, N.: Crystal formation and growth in bivalve nacre. Nature 248, 128–130 (1974).
    Article Google Scholar
  240. Erben, H. K.: On the structure and growth of the nacreous tablets in gastropods. Biomineralisation 7, 14–27 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  241. Bevelander, G., and Nakahara, H.: An electron microscope study of the formation of the nacreous layer in the shell of certain bivalve molluscs. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 84–92 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  242. Nakahara, H., and Bevelander, G.: The formation and growth of the prismatic layer of Pinctada radiata. Calc. Tiss. Res. 7, 31–45 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  243. Towe, K. M., and Hamilton, G. H.: Ultrastructure and inferred calcification of the mature and developing nacre in bivalve molluscs. Calc. Tiss. Res. 1, 306–318 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  244. Wise, S. W.: Microarchitecture and mode of formation of nacre (mother-of-pearl) in pelecypods, gastropods, and cephalopods. Eclog. Geol. Helv. 63, 775–797 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  245. Wise, Jr. S. W.: Microarchitecture and deposition of gastropod nacre. Science 167, 1486–1488 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  246. Wada, K.: Nucleation and growth of aragonite crystals in the nacre of some bivalve molluscs. Biomineralisation 6, 141–159 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  247. Mutvei, H.: Ultrastructure of the mineral and organic components of molluscan nacreous layers. Biomineralisation 2, 48–72 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  248. Gregoire, C.: Sur la structure des matrices organiques des coquilles des mollusques. Biol. Rev. 42, 653–681 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  249. Wise, S. W., and de Villiers, J.: Scanning electron microscopy of molluscan shell ultrastructures: Screw dislocations in pelecypod nacre. Trans. Amer. Microsc. Soc. 90, 376–380 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  250. Williams, A.: Spiral growth of the laminar shell of the brachiopod crania. Calc. Tiss. Res. 6, 11–19 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  251. Wada, K.: Spiral growth of nacre. Nature 211, 1427 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  252. Chothia, C.: Hydrophobic bonding and accessible surface area in proteins. Nature 248, 338–339 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  253. Némethy, G., and Scheraga, H. A.: The structure of water and hydrophobic bonding in proteins. III. The thermodynamic properties of hydrophobic bonds in proteins. J. Phys. Chem. 66, 1773–1789 (1962).
    Google Scholar
  254. Scheraga, H. A.: Role of hydrophobic bonding in protein structure. Ber. Bunsenges. 63. Hauptversammlung 1964, 838–839.
    Google Scholar
  255. Berendsen, H. J.C., and Migchelsen, C.: Hydration structure of fibrous macromolecules. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 125, 365–379 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  256. Grant, E. H.: The structure of water neighbouring proteins, peptides and amino acids as deduced from dielectric measurements. Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 125, 418–427 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  257. Lumry, R., and Rajender, S.: Enthalpy-entropy compensation phenomena in water solutions of proteins and small molecules: An ubiquitous property of water. Biopolymers 9, 1125–1227 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  258. Hasl, G., and, Pauly, H.: Kalorische Eigenschaften des gebundenen Wassers in Proteinlösungen. Biophysik 7, 283–294 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  259. Suess, E.: Interaction of organic compounds with calcium carbonate. II. Organo-carbonate association in recent sediments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 37, 2435–2447 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  260. Okazaki, M.: Carbonic anhydrase in the calcareous red alga, Serraticardia maxima. Botanica Marina 15, 133–138 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  261. Freeman, J. A., and Wilbur, K. M.: Carbonic anhydrase in molluscs. Biol. Bull. 94, 55–59 (1948).
    CAS Google Scholar
  262. Freeman, J. A.: Influence of carbonic anhydrase inhibition on shell growth of a fresh-water snail, Physa heterostropha. Biol. Bull. 118, 413–429 (1960).
    Google Scholar
  263. Wilbur, K. M., and Jodrey, L. H.: Studies on shell formation. V. The inhibition of shell formation by carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Biol. Bull. 108, 359–365 (1955).
    CAS Google Scholar
  264. Costlow, Jr., J. D.: Effect of carbonate anhydrase inhibitors on shell development and growth of Balanus improvisus DARWIN. Biol. Bull. 116, 177–184 (1959).
    Google Scholar
  265. Goreau, T. F.: The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. I. A method for measuring the rate of calcium deposition by corals under different conditions. Biol. Bull. 116, 59–75 (1959).
    CAS Google Scholar
  266. Goreau, T. F.: Problems of growth and calcium deposition in reef corals. Endeavour 20, 32–39 (1961).
    Article Google Scholar
  267. Newton, I., and Bogan, J.: Organochlorine residues, eggshell thinning and hatching success in British sparrow-hawks. Nature 249, 582–583 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  268. Remsen, C. C., Bowen, V. T., and Honjo, S.: Responses by open ocean microorganisms to environmental pollution. U.S.-Japan Conf. Mar. Microbiol. Symp.: Effect of the ocean environment on microbiological activities, 1–16 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  269. Honjo, S.: A coccolithophorid alga, Emiliania huxleyi. In: Research in the sea (dir. P. M. Fye). Woods Hole Oceanograph. Inst., Woods Hole Mass., figures on p. 2 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  270. Goreau, T. F., and Goreau, N. I.: The physiology of skeleton formation in corals: III. Calcification rate as a function of colony weight and total nitrogen content in the reef coral Manicina areolata (Linnaeus). Biol. Bull. 117, 420–429 (1959).
    Google Scholar
  271. Goreau, T. F.: Calcium carbonate deposition by coralline algae and corals in relation to their roles as reef-builders. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 109, 127–167 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  272. Buchsbaum, Pearse, V.: Incorporation of metabolic CO2 into coral skeleton. Nature 228, 383 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  273. Steemann Nielsen, E.: The uptake of free CO2 and HCO −3 during photosynthesis of plankton algae with special reference to the coccolithophorid Coccolithus huxleyi. Physiol. Plant. 19, 232–240 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  274. Keith, M. L., Anderson, G. M., and Eichler, R.: Carbon and oxygen isotopic composition of mollusc shells from marine and fresh-water environments. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 28, 1757–1786 (1964).
    CAS Google Scholar
  275. Keith, M. L., and Parker, R. H.: Local variation of 13C and 18O content of mollusc shells and the relatively minor temperature effect in marginal marine environments. Mar. Geol. 3, 115–129 (1965).
    Article Google Scholar
  276. Deuser, W. G., and Degens, E. T.: Carbon isotope fractionation in the system CO2 (gas)-CO2 (aq)-HCO −3 (aq). Nature 215, 1033–1035 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  277. Emrich, K., Ehhalt, D. H., and Vogel, J. C.: Carbon isotope fractionation during the precipitation of calcium carbonate. Earth Plan. Sci. Letters 8, 363–371 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  278. Mook, W. G., Bommerson, J. C., and Staverman, W. H.: Carbon isotope fractionation between dissolved bicarbonate and gaseous carbon dioxide. Earth Plan. Sci. Letters 22, 169–176 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  279. Weber, J. N., and Raup, D. M.: Fractionation of the stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen in marine calcareous organisms — the Echinoidea. Part II. Environmental and genetic factors. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 30, 705–736 (1966).
    CAS Google Scholar
  280. Weber, J. N., and Raup, D. M.: Fractionation of the stable isotopes of carbon and oxygen in marine calcareous organisms — the Echinoidea. Part I. Variation of C and O content within individuals. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 30, 681–703 (1966).
    CAS Google Scholar
  281. Keith, M. L., and Weber, J. N.: Systematic relationships between carbon and oxygen isotopes in carbonates deposited by modern corals and algae. Science 150, 498–501 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  282. Istin, M., and Girard, J. P.: Carbonic anhydrase and mobilisation of lamellibranchs. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 247–260 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  283. Istin, M., and Girard, J. P.: Dynamic state of calcium reserves in freshwater clam mantle. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 196–205 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  284. Schraer, H., and Schraer, R.: Calcium transfer across the avian shell gland. In: Cellular mechanisms for calcium transfer and homeostasis (eds. G. Nichols, Jr. and R. H. Wasserman), pp. 351–370. New York and London: Academic Press 1971.
    Google Scholar
  285. Terepka, A. R., Coleman, J. R., Garrison, J. C., and Spataro, R. F.: Active transcellular transport of calcium by embryonic chick chorioallantoic membrane. In: Cellular mechanisms for calcium transfer and homeostasis (eds. G. Nichols, Jr. and R. H. Wasserman), pp. 371–389. New York and London: Academic Press 1971.
    Google Scholar
  286. Northcote, D. H.: The golgi apparatus. Endeavour 30, 26–33 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  287. Isenberg, H. D., Lavine, L. S., Moss, M. L., Kupferstein, D., and Lear, P. E.: Calcification in a marine coccolithophorid. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 109, 49–64 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  288. Norris, R. E.: Living cells of Ceratolithus cristatus (Coccolithophorinae). Arch. Protistenk. 108, 19–24 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  289. Watabe, N.: Crystallographic analysis of the coccolith of Coccolithus huxleyi. Calc. Tiss. Res. 1, 114–121 (1967).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  290. Manton, I.: Further observations on scale formation in Chrysochromulina chiton, J. Cell. Sci. 2, 411–418 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  291. Manton, I.: Observations on scale production in Pymnesium parvum. J. Cell. Sci. 2, 375–379 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  292. Manton, I., and Peterfi, L. S.: Observations on the fine structure of coccoliths, scales and the protoplast of a freshwater coccolithophorid, Ilymenomonas roseola Stein, with supplementary observations on the protoplast of Cricosphaera carterae. Proc. Roy. Soc. B. 172, 1–15 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  293. Klaveness, D., and Paasche, E.: Two different Coccolithus huxleyi cell types incapable of coccolith formation. Arch. Microbiol. 75, 382–385 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  294. Klaveness, D.: Coccolithus huxleyi (Lohmann) Kamptner. I. Morphological investigations on the vegetative cell and the process of coccolith formation. Protistologica 8, 335–346 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  295. Klaveness, D.: Coccolithus huxleyi (Lohmann) Kamptner. II. The flagellate cell, aberrant cell types, vegetative propagation and life cycles. Br. phyc. J. 7, 309–318 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  296. Klaveness, D.: The microanatomy of Calyptrosphaera sphaeroidea, with some supplementary observations on the motile stage of Coccolithus pelagicus. Norw. J. Bot. 20, 151–162 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  297. Paasche, E., and Klaveness, D.: A physiological comparison of coccolith forming and naked cells of Coccolithus huxleyi. Arch. Mikrobiol. 73, 143–152 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  298. Outka, D. E., and Williams, D. C.: Sequential coccolith morphogenesis in Hymenomonas carterae. J. Protozool. 18, 285–297 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  299. Green, J. C., and Leadbeater, B. S. C.: Chrysochromulina parkeae sp. nov. (Haptophyceae), a new species recorded from S. W. England and Norway. J. Mar. Biol. Ass. U. K. 52, 469–474 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  300. Honjo, S., and Okada, H.: Community structure of coccolithophores in the photic layer of the mid-Pacific. Micropaleontol. 20, 209–230 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  301. Parker, B., and Diboll, A.: Alcian stains for histochemical localization of acid and sulfated polysaccharides in algae. Phycologia 6, 37–46 (1966).
    CAS Google Scholar
  302. Anderson, N. S., Campbell, J. W., Harding, M. M., Rees, D. A., and Samuel, J. W. B.: X-ray diffraction studies of polysaccharide sulphates: Double helix models for κ-and l-carrageenans. J. Mol. Biol. 45, 85–99 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  303. Arrhenius, G.: Pelagic sediments. In: The sea. Ideas and observations on progress in the study of the sea (ed. M. N. Hill), pp. 655–727. New York: Interscience Publ. Inc. 1963.
    Google Scholar
  304. Bubel, A.: An electron-microscope investigation of the cells lining the outer surface of the mantle in some marine molluscs. Mar. Biol. 21, 245–255 (1973).
    Article Google Scholar
  305. Kniprath, E.: Die Feinstruktur des Drüsenpolsters von Lymnaea stagnalis. Biomineralisation 5, 1–11 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  306. Kniprath, E.: Formation and structure of the periostracum in Lymnaea stagnalis. Calc. Tiss. Res. 9, 260–271 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  307. Bubel, A.: An electron-microscope investigation into the distribution of polyphenols in the periostracum and cells of the inner face of the outer fold of Mytilus edulis. Mar. Biol. 23, 3–10 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  308. Kniprath, E.: Die Feinstruktur der Periostrakumgrube von Lymnaea stagnalis. Biomineralisation 2, 23–37 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  309. Bevelander, G., and Nakahara, H.: An electron microscope study of the formation of the ligament of Mytilus edulis and Pinctada radiata. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4, 101–112 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  310. Bevelander, G., and Nakahara, H.: An electron microscope study of the formation and structure of the periostracum of a gastropod, Littorina littorea. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 1–12 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  311. Taylor, J. D., and Kennedy, W. J.: The influence of the periostracum on the shell structure of bivalve molluscs. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 274–283 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  312. Chan, J. F. Y., and Saleuddin, A. S. M.: Acid phosphatase in the mantle of the shell regenerating snail Helisoma duryi duryi. Calc. Tiss. Res. 15, 213–220 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  313. Kniprath, E.: Cytochemische Lokalisation von Kalzium im Mantelepithel von Lymnaea stagnalis (Gastropoda). Histochemie 25, 45–51 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  314. Simkiss, K.: Calciumtransport durch Zellen. Endeavour 33, 119–123 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  315. Carr, N. G., and Whitton, B. A. (eds.): The biology of blue-green algae. Blackwell Scientific Publ. (1973).
    Google Scholar
  316. Golubić, S., and Fischer. A. G.: Ecology of calcareous nodules forming in Little Conestoga Creek near Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Verh. Int. Ver. Limnol. 19 (in press).
    Google Scholar
  317. Lucas, G.: La sédimentation calcaire. Action du carbonate de sodium sur l'eau de mer. Compl. Rend. 226, 937–939 (1948).
    CAS Google Scholar
  318. Baron, G., and Pesneau, M.: Sur l'existence et un mode de préparation du monohydrate de carbonate de calcium. Comp. Rend. 243, 1217–1219 (1956).
    CAS Google Scholar
  319. Malone, Ph. G. and Towe, K. M.: Microbial carbonate and phosphate precipitates from sea water cultures. Mar. Geol. 9, 301–309 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  320. Cloud, Jr., P. E., and Semikhatov, M. A.: Proterozoic stromatolite zonation. Amer. J. Sci. 267, 1017–1061 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  321. Hofmann, H. J.: Stromatolites: Characteristics and utility. Earth Sci. Rev. 9, 339–373 (1973).
    Article Google Scholar
  322. Golubić, S.: The relationship between blue-green algae and carbonate deposits. In: The biology of blue-green algae (eds. N. G. Carr and B. A. Whitton), pp. 434–472. Blackwell Scientific Publications 1973.
    Google Scholar
  323. Walter, M. R., Golubić, S., and Preiss, W. V.: Recent stromatolites from hydromagnesite and aragonite depositing lakes near the Coorong Lagoon, South Australia. J. Sed. Petrol. 43, 1021–1030 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  324. Pannella, G., and MacClintock, C.: Paleontological evidence of variations in length of synodic month since late Cambrian. Science 162, 792–796 (1968).
    Google Scholar
  325. Bak, R. P. M.: Coral weight increment in situ. A new method to determine coral growth. Mar. Biol. 20, 45–49 (1973).
    Article Google Scholar
  326. Evans, J. W.: Tidal growth increments in the cockle Clinocardium nuttalli. Science 176, 416–417 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  327. Colthart, B. J., and Johannsen, H. W.: Growth rates of Corallina officinalis (Rhodophyta) at different temperatures. Mar. Biol. 18, 46–49 (1973).
    Article Google Scholar
  328. Buchsbaum Pearse, V.: Radioisotopic study of calcification in the articulated coralline alga Bossiella orbigniana. J. Phycol. 8, 88–97 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  329. Pannella, G.: Fish otoliths: Daily growth layers and periodical patterns. Science 173, 1124–1127 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  330. Dodge, R. E., Aller, R. C., and Thomson, J.: Coral growth related to resuspension of bottom sediments. Nature 247, 574–576 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  331. Knutson, D. W., Buddemeier, R. W., and Smith, S. V.: Coral chronometers: Seasonal growth bands in reef corals. Science 177, 270–272 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  332. Inagaki, H.: Changes in rates of increase in size and of exoskeletal production during old age in the isopod Ligia oceanica (L.). Nature 247, 154–155 (1974).
    Article Google Scholar
  333. Clark II, G. R.: Mollusk shell: Daily growth lines. Science 161, 800–802 (1968).
    Google Scholar
  334. Weber, J. N.: Basis for skeletal plasticity among reef-building corals. Geology 2, 153–154 (1974).
    Article Google Scholar
  335. Rhoads, D. C., and Pannella, G.: The use of molluscan shell growth patterns in ecology and paleoecology. Lethaia 3, 143–161 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  336. Goreau, T. F., and Goreau, N. I.: The physiology of skeleton formation in corals. II. Calcium deposition by hermatypic corals under various conditions in the reef. Biol. Bull. 117, 239–250 (1959).
    CAS Google Scholar
  337. Buchsbaum Pearse, V., and, Muscatine, L.: Role of symbiotic algae (Zooxanthellae) in coral calcification. Biol. Bull. 141, 350–363 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  338. Kennedy, W. J., Morris, N. J., and Taylor, J. D.: The shell structure, mineralogy and relationships of the Chamacea (Bivalvia). Paleontology 13, 379–413 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  339. Kennedy, W. J., Taylor, J. D., and Hall, A.: Environmental and biological controls on bivalve shell mineralogy. Biol. Rev. 44, 499–530 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  340. Moore, W. S., Krishnaswami, S., and Bhat, S. G.: Radiometrie determinations of coral growth rates. Bull. Mar. Sci. 23, 157–175 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  341. Berry, W. B. N., and Barker, R. M.: Fossil bivalve shells indicate longer month and year in Cretaceous than present. Nature 217, 938–939 (1968).
    Google Scholar
  342. Stark, L. M., Almodovar, L., and Krauss, R. W.: Factors affecting the rate of calcification in Halimeda opuntia (L) Lamouroux and Halimeda discoidea Decaisne. J. Phycol. 5, 305–312 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  343. Chave, K. E., Smith, S. V., and Roy, K. J.: Carbonate production by coral reefs. Mar. Geol. 12, 123–140 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  344. Scrutton, C. T., and Hipkin, R. G.: Long-term changes in the rotation rate of the earth. Earth-Sci. Rev. 9, 259–274 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  345. Palmer, J. D.: Biological clocks of the tidal zone. Scientific American 1975, 70–79 (Febr.).
    Google Scholar
  346. Devereux, I.: Temperature measurements from oxygen isotope ratios of fish otoliths. Science 155, 1684–1685 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  347. Morris, R. W., and Kittleman, L. R.: Piezoelectric property of otoliths. Science 158, 368–370 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  348. Hathaway, J., and Degens, E. T.: Methane-derived marine carbonates of Pleistocene age. Science 165, 690–692 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  349. Njus, D., Sulzman, F. M., and Hastings, J. W.: Membrane model for the circadian clock. Nature 248, 116–120 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  350. Dayhoff, M. O.: Atlas of protein sequence and structure 1972. Nat. Biomed. Res. Found. Georgetown Univ. Medic. Cent. Washington 1972.
    Google Scholar
  351. Degens, E. T.: Metal ion coordination in biogeochemical systems. Adv. Org. Geochem. 6, 849–858 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  352. Chave, K. E.: Aspects of the biochemistry of magnesium 1. Calcareous marine organisms. J. Geol. 62, 266–283 (1954).
    CAS Google Scholar
  353. Malone, P. G., and Dodd, J. R.: Temperature and salinity effects on calcification rate of Mytilus edulis and its paleoecological implications. Limnol. Oceanogr. 12, 432–436 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  354. Lowenstam, H. A.: Factors affecting the aragonite: calcite ratios in carbonate-secreting marine organisms. J. Geol. 62, 284–322 (1954).
    CAS Google Scholar
  355. Schindewolf, O. H.: Neokatastrophismus? Ztschr. Deutsch. Geol. Ges. 114, 430–445 (1962).
    Google Scholar
  356. Termine, J. D., and Eanes, E. D.: Comparative chemistry of amorphous and apatitic calcium phosphate preparations. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 171–197 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  357. Termine, J. D., and Posner, A. S.: Amorphous/crystalline interrelationships in bone mineral. Calc. Tiss. Res. I, 8–23 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  358. Termine, J. D., Eanes, D. J., Greenfield, E. D., and Nylen, M. U.: Hydrazine-deproteinated bone mineral. Physical and chemical properties. Calc. Tiss. Res. 12, 73–90 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  359. Elliott, J. C.: Recent progress in the chemistry, crystal chemistry and structure of the apatites. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 293–307 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  360. McClellan, G. H., and Lehr, J. R.: Crystal chemical investigation of natural apatites. Amer. Mineralog. 54, 1374–1391 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  361. Newesely, H.: Die mineralogisch-geochemische und die biogene Kristallisation des Apatits. Biomineralisation 2, 39–47 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  362. Münzenberg, K. J.: Untersuchungen zur Kristallographie der Knochenminerale. Biomineralisation 1, 67–100 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  363. West, V. C.: Observations on phase transformation of a precipitated calcium phosphate. Calc. Tiss. Res. 7, 212–219 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  364. McConnell, D., and Foreman, W. D. Jr.: Texture and composition of bone. Science 172, 971–972 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  365. Urist, M. R.: Origins of current ideas about calcification. Clin. Orthop. 44, 13–39 (1966).
    CAS Google Scholar
  366. Katz, S., Beck, C. W., and Muhler, J. C.: Crystallographic evaluation of enamel from carious and noncarious teeth. J. Dental. Res. 48, 1280–1283 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  367. Selvig, K. A.: Periodic lattice images of hydroxyapatite crystals in human bone and dental hard tissues. Calc. Tiss. Res. 6, 227–238 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  368. Selvig, K. A.: The crystal structure of hydroxyapatite in dental enamel as seen with the electron microscope. J. Ultrastructural Res. 41, 369–375 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  369. Selvig, K. A.: Electron microscopy of dental enamel: Analysis of crystal lattice images. Z. Zeilforsch. 137, 271–280 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  370. American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM): X-ray powder diffraction file, card No. 9-432, Philadelphia (1967).
    Google Scholar
  371. McConnell, D.: Crystal chemistry of bone mineral: Hydrated carbonate apatites. Amer. Mineralog. 55, 1659–1669 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  372. McConnell, D.: Crystal chemistry of hydroxyapatite. Its relation to bone mineral. Arch. oral. Biol. 10, 421–431 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  373. Newesely, H.: Die Realstruktur von Oktacalciumphosphat. M. Chemie 95, 94–101 (1964).
    CAS Google Scholar
  374. Füredi-Milhofer, H., Purgaric, B., Brecevic, Lj., and Pavkovic, N.: Precipitation of calcium phosphates from electrolyte solutions. I. A study of the precipitates in the physiological pH region. Calc. Tiss. Res. 8, 142–153 (1971).
    Article Google Scholar
  375. Brecevic, Lj, and Füredi-Milhofer, H.: Precipitation of calcium phosphates from electrolyte solutions. II. The formation and transformation of the precipitates. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 82–90 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  376. Brown, W. E., Smith, J. P., Lehr, J. R., and Frazier, A. W.: Crystallographic and chemical relations between octacalcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite. Nature 196, 1050–1055 (1962).
    CAS Google Scholar
  377. Eanes, E. D., and Posner, A. S.: Kinetics and mechanism of conversion of noncrystalline calcium phosphate to crystalline hydroxyapatite. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci. Ser. II, 28, 233–241 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  378. Eanes, E. D., Termine, J. D., and Posner, A. S.: Amorphous calcium phosphate in skeletal tissues. Clin. Orthop. 53, 223–235 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  379. Termine, J. D., Peckauskas, R. A., and Posner, A. S.: Calcium phosphate in vitro. II. Effects of environment on amorphous-crystalline transformation. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 140, 318–325 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  380. Newesely, H.: Ist Fluor ein essentieller Spurenbestandteil des physiologischen Milieus? Kristallchemische Argumente zur Kariesprophylaxe durch Fluoridierungsma\nahmen. Dtsch. zahnÄrztl. Ztschr. 24, 1483–1486 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  381. McConnell, D.: Inorganic constituents in the shell of the living brachiopod Lingula. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 74, 363–364 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  382. Hayek, E.: Die Mineralsubstanz der Knochen. Klin. Wschr. 45, 857–863 (1967).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  383. Eanes, E. D., Termine, J. D., and Nylen, M. U.: An electron microscope study of the formation of amorphous calcium phosphate and its transformation to crystalline apatite. Calc. Tiss. Res. 12, 144–158 (1973).
    Article Google Scholar
  384. Eanes, E. D.: Thermochemical studies on amorphous calcium phosphate. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 133–145 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  385. Bachra, B. N., Trautz, O., and Simon, S. L.: Precipitation of calcium carbonates and phosphates. II. A precipitation diagram for the system calcium-carbonate-phosphate and the heterogeneous nucleation of solids in the metastability region. Adv. Arch. Fluorine Res. Dental Caries Prev. 3, 101–118 (1965).
    CAS Google Scholar
  386. Bachra, B. N., and van Harskamp, G. A.: The effect of polyvalent metal ions on the stability of a buffer system for calcification in vitro. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4, 359–365 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  387. Robertson, W. G.: Factors affecting the precipitation of calcium phosphate in vitro. Calc. Tiss. Res. 11, 311–322 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  388. Holmes, J. M., and Beebe, R. A.: Surface areas by gas adsorption on amorphous calcium phosphate and crystalline hydroxyapatite. Calc. Tiss. Res. 7, 163–174 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  389. Degens, E. T.: Geochemistry of sediments. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey (1965).
    Google Scholar
  390. Amprimo, R., and Engstrom, A.: Study on X-ray absorption and diffraction of bone tissue. Acta Anat. 15, 1–22 (1952).
    Google Scholar
  391. Eanes, E. D., and Posner, A. S.: Structure and chemistry of bone mineral. In: Biological calcification (ed. H. Schraer), pp. 1–26. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts 1970.
    Google Scholar
  392. Wergedal, J. E., and Baylink, D. J.: Electron microprobe measurements of bone mineralization in vivo. Amer. J. Physiol. 226, 345–352 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  393. Marotti, G., Favia, A., and Zambonin Zallone, A.: Quantitative analysis on the rate of secondary bone mineralization. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 67–81 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  394. Papworth, D. G., and Vennart, J.: Retention of 90Sr in human bone at different ages and the resulting radiation doses. Phys. Med. Biol. 18, 169–186 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  395. Loutit, J. F.: What is the turnover of bone mineral? Calc. Tiss. Res. 2, 111–114 (1968).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  396. Simmons, D. J., Simmons, N. B., and Marshall, J. H.: The uptake of calcium-45 in the acellular-boned toadfish. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 206–221 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  397. Davies, H. G., and Engstrom, A.: Interferometric and X-ray absorption studies of bone tissue. Exptl. Cell. Res. 1, 243–255 (1954).
    Google Scholar
  398. Richelle, L. J., and Onkelinx, C.: Recent advances in the physical biology of bone and other hard tissues. In: Mineral metabolism (eds. C. Comar and F. Bronner), Vol. III., pp. 123–190. New York: Academic Press 1969.
    Google Scholar
  399. Bachra, B. B., and van der Meulen-van Harskamp, G. A.: The effect of tetracycline and oxytetracycline on the formation of biological apatite. Calc. Tiss. Res. 11, 95–96 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  400. Carlisle, E. M.: Silicon: a possible factor in bone calcification. Science 167, 279–280 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  401. Liebau, F.: Die Systematik der Silikate. Naturwissenschaften 49, 481–491 (1962).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  402. Liebau, F.: Die Kristallchemie der Phosphate. Fortschr. Miner. 42, 266–302 (1966).
    CAS Google Scholar
  403. Bergerhoff, G.: Apatit als Struktur mit zentralem Anion. Ztschr. Kristallogr. 124, 452–454 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  404. Schiffman, E., Corcoran, B. A., and Martin, G. R. A.: The role of complexed heavy metals in initiating the mineralization of “elastin” and the precipitation of mineral from solution. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 115, 87–94 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  405. Klement, R., Hüter, F., and Köhrer, K.: Bildet sich Carbonatapatit in wÄ\rigen Systemen? Ztschr. Elektrochem. 48, 334–336 (1942).
    CAS Google Scholar
  406. Baxter, J. D., Biltz, R. M., and Pellegrino, E. D.: The physical state of bone carbonate: A comparative infrared study in several mineralized tissues. Yale J. Biol. Med. 38, 456–470 (1966).
    CAS Google Scholar
  407. Pellegrino, E. D., and Biltz, R. M.: Mineralization in the chick embryo. I. Monohydrogen phosphate and carbonate relationships during maturation of the bone crystal complex. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 128–135 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  408. Newesely, H.: Conditions for the existence of octacalcium phosphate, withlockit and carbonate apatite. A contribution to the crystal chemistry of biological hard substances. Dtsch. zahnÄrztl. Ztschr. 20, 754–766 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  409. Ames, Jr., L. L.: The genesis of carbonate apatites. Econ. Geol. 54, 829–841 (1959).
    CAS Google Scholar
  410. Neuman, W. J., and Neuman, M. W.: Chemical dynamics of bone mineral. University Chicago, III, 101–136 (1958).
    Google Scholar
  411. Lörcher, K., and Newesely, H.: Calcium carbonate (calcite) as a separate phase besides calcium phosphate apatite in medullary bone of laying hens. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 358–362 (1969).
    Article Google Scholar
  412. Pellegrino, E. D., and Biltz, R. M.: Calcium carbonate in medullary bone. Calc. Tiss. Res. 6, 168–171 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  413. Bird, E. D., and Thomas, W. C. Jr.: Effect of various metals on mineralization in vitro. Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. (N.Y) 112, 640–643 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  414. Bachra, B. N., and van Harskamp, G. A.: The effect of polyvalent metal ions on the stability of a buffer system for calcification in vitro. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4, 359–365 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  415. Bridges, J. B., and McClure, J.: Experimental calcification in a number of species. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 136–141 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  416. Baylink, D., Wergedal, J., and Thompson, E.: Loss of protein-polysaccharides at sites where bone mineralization is initiated. J. Histochem. Cytochem. 20, 279–292 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  417. Wollast, R., and Burny, F.: Study of bone mineralization at the microscopic level using an electron probe microanalyser. Calc. Tiss. Res. 8, 73–82 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  418. Eastoe, J. E.: Chemical aspects of the matrix concept in calcified tissue organisation. Calc. Tiss. Res. 2, 1–19 (1968).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  419. Urist, M. R.: Biologic initiators of calcification. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 757–805. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  420. Fearnhead, R. W., and Stack, M. V. (eds.): Tooth enamel II. Its composition, properties, and fundamental structure. John Wright & Sons Ltd. Bristol (1971).
    Google Scholar
  421. Stack, M. V., and Fearnhead, R. W. (eds.): Tooth enamel. Its composition, properties, and fundamental structure. Bristol: John Wright & Sons Ltd. 1965.
    Google Scholar
  422. Pautard, F. G. E.: Mineralization of keratin and its comparison with the enamel matrix. Nature 199, 531–539 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  423. Campo, R. D., and Tourtelotte, C. D.: The composition of bovine cartilage and bone. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 141, 614–624 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  424. Herring, G. M.: The mucosubstances of bone. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 75–94. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  425. Lindenbaum, A., and Kuettner, K. E. A.: Mucopolysaccharides and mucoproteins of calf scapula. Calc. Tiss. Res. 1, 153–165 (1967).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  426. Zamoscianyk, H., and Veis, A.: The isolation and chemical characterization of a phosphatecontaining sialoglyco-protein from developing bovine teeth. Fed. Proc. 25, 409 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  427. Shapiro, I. M.: The lipids of skeletal and dental tissues: Their role in mineralization. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 117–138. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  428. Dirksen, T. R., and Marinetti, G. V.: Lipids of bovine enamel and dentin and human bone. Calc. Tiss. Res. 5, 1–10 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  429. Fincham, A. G., Burkland, G. A., and Shapiro, I. M.: Lipophilia of enamel matrix. A chemical investigation of the neutral lipids and lipophilic proteins of enamel. Calc. Tiss. Res. 9, 247–259 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  430. Owen, M., Triffitt, J. T., and Melick, R. A.: Albumin in bone. In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 263–293. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North Holland, 1973.
    Google Scholar
  431. Smillie, A. C.: The chemistry of the organic phase of teeth. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 130–163. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  432. Glimcher, M. J., Friberg, U. A., and Levine, P. T.: The isolation and amino acid composition of the enamel proteins of erupted bovine teeth. Biochem. J. 93, 202–210 (1964).
    CAS Google Scholar
  433. Weidmann, S. M., and Eyre, D. R.: The protein of mature and foetal enamel. In: Tooth enamel II. Its composition, properties and fundamental structure (eds. R. W. Fearnhead and M. V. Stack), pp. 72–78. Bristol: John Wright & Sons Ltd. 1971.
    Google Scholar
  434. Eastoe, J. E.: The amino acid composition of proteins from the oral tissues. II The matrix proteins in dentine and enamel from developing human deciduous teeth. Arch. oral. Biol. 8, 633–652 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  435. Everett, M. M., and Miller, W. A.: Histochemical studies on calcified tissues. I. Amino acid histochemistry of foetal calf and human enamel matrix. Calc. Tiss. Res. 14, 229–244 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  436. Glimcher, M. J.: Specificity of the molecular structure of organic matrices in mineralization. In: Calcification in biological systems (ed. R. F. Sognnaes), pp. 421–487. Washington, D. C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science 1960.
    Google Scholar
  437. Jethi, R. K., Inlow, C. W., and Wadkins, C. L.: Studies of the mechanism of biological calcification. I. Kinetic properties of the in vitro calcification of collagen-containing matrix. Calc. Tiss. Res. 6, 81–92 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  438. Bachra, B. N.: Calcification in vitro of collagenous model systems: Chemical and electronmicroscopic aspects. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4 (Suppl.), 31–33 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  439. Bachra, B. N.: Nucleation in biological systems. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 845–881. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  440. Bachra, B. N., and Fischer, H. R. A.: Mineral deposition in collagen in vitro. Calc. Tiss. Res. 2, 343–352 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  441. Wadkins, C. L.: Experimental factors that influence collagen calcification in vitro. Calc. Tiss. Res. 2, 214–228 (1968).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  442. Fleisch, H., and Neuman, W. F.: Mechanisms of calcification: Role of collagen, polyphosphate and phosphatase. Amer. J. Physiol. 200, 1296–1300 (1961).
    CAS Google Scholar
  443. Taves, D. R., and Neuman, W. F.: Factors controlling calcification in vitro: The calcium/phosphate ratio. Proc. Soc. exp. Biol. (N.Y.) 116, 631–635 (1964).
    CAS Google Scholar
  444. Katz, E. P.: The kinetics of mineralization in vitro. I. The nucleation properties of 640 å collagen at 25‡. Biochim. Biophys. Acta 194, 121–129 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  445. Bachra, B. N.: Calcification in vitro of demineralized bone matrix. Calc. Tiss. Res. 8, 287–303 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  446. Nylen, M. U., Scott, D. B., and Mosley, V. M.: Mineralization of turkey leg tendon. II. Collagen-mineral relations revealed by electron and X-ray microscopy. In: Calcification in biological systems (ed. R. F. Sognnaes), pp. 129–142. Washington, D. C.: 1960.
    Google Scholar
  447. Luben, R. A., Sherman, J. K., and Wadkins, C. L.: Studies of the mechanism of biological calcification. IV. Ultrastructural analysis of calcifying tendon matrix. Calc. Tiss. Res. 11, 39–55 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  448. Gray, W. R., Sandberg, L. B., and Foster, J. A.: Molecular model for elastin structure and function. Nature 246, 461–466 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  449. Molinari Tosatti, M. P., Gotte, L., and Moret, V.: Some features of the binding of calcium ions to elastin. Calc. Tiss. Res. 6, 329–334 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  450. Schiffmann, E., Lavender, D. R., Miller, E. J., and Corcoran, B. A.: Amino acids at the nucleating site in mineralizing elastic tissue. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 125–141 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  451. Rucker, R. B., Ford, D., Goettlich-Riemann, W., and Tom, K.: Additional evidence for the binding of calcium ions to elastin at neutral sites. Calc. Tiss. Res. 14, 317–325 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  452. Urry, D. W.: Neutral sites for calcium ion binding to elastin and collagen: A charge neutralization theory for calcification and its relationship to atherosclerosis. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 68, 810–814 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  453. Urry, D. W., Cummingham, W. D., and Osbnishi, T.: A neutral polypeptide-calcium ion complex. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 292, 853–857 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  454. Ramachandran, G. N. (ed.): Treatise on collagen. New York and London: Academic Press, 1967.
    Google Scholar
  455. Ramachandran, G. N.: Structure of fibrous proteins and polypeptides. In: Collagen (ed. N. Ramanathan), pp. 3–35. New York and London: Interscience Publ. 1962.
    Google Scholar
  456. Yee, R. Y., Englander, S. W., and von Hippel, P. H.: Native collagen has a two-bonded structure. J. Mol. Biol. 83, 1–16 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  457. Miller, E. J.: The collagen of bone and cartilage. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 95–115. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  458. Barnes, M. J.: Biochemistry of collagens from mineralized tissues. In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization. (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 247–261. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North-Holland 1973.
    Google Scholar
  459. Speakman, P. T.: Proposed mechanism for the biological assembly of collagen triple helix. Nature 229, 241–243 (1971).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  460. Schofield, J. D., and Prockop, D. J.: Procollagen — A precursor form of collagen. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 97, 175–195 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  461. Uitto, J., and Prockop, D. J.: Rate of helix formation by intracellular procollagen. Evidence for a role for disulfide bonds. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 55, 904–911 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  462. Grant, M. E., Schofield, J. D., Kefalides, N. A., and Prockop, D. J.: The biosynthesis of basement membrane collagen in embryonic chick lens. J. Biol. Chem. 248, 7432–7437 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  463. Chung, E., and Miller, E. J.: Collagen polymorphism: Characterization of molecules with the chain composition [α 1 (III)]3 in human tissues. Science 183, 1200–1201 (1974).
    CAS Google Scholar
  464. Jimenez, S., Harsch, M., and Rosenbloom, J.: Hydroxyproline stabilizes the triple helix of chick tendon collagen. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 52, 106–114 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  465. Uitto, J., Schofield, J. D., and Prockop, D. J.: Disulfide bonding and rate of triple-helix formation during biosynthesis of cartilage procollagen. Fed. Proc. 33, 617 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  466. Schofield, J. D., Uitto, J., and Prockop, D. J.: Formation of interchain disulfide bonds and helical structure during biosynthesis of procollagen by embryonic tendon cells. Biochemistry 13, 1801–1806 (1974).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  467. Harwood, R., Grant, M. E., and Jackson, D. S.: The sub-cellular location of inter-chain disulfide bond formation during procollagen synthesis by embryonic chick tendon cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 55, 1188–1196 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  468. Berg, R. A., and Prockop, D. J.: Thermal transition of a non-hydroxylated form of collagen. Evidence for a role for hydroxyproline in stabilizing the triple-helix of collagen. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 52, 115–119 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  469. Smith, D. W., Brown, D. M., and Carnes, W. H.: Preparation and properties of salt-soluble elastin. J. Biol. Chem. 247, 2427–2432 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  470. Ohnishi, M., and Urry, D. W.: Solution conformation of valinomycin-potassium ion complex. Science 168, 1091–1092 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  471. Pinkerton, M., Steinrauf, L. K., and, in part, Dawkins, P.: The molecular structure and some transport properties of valinomycin. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 35, 512–518 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  472. Dobler, M., Dunitz, J. D., and Krajewski, J.: Structure of the K+ complex with enniatin B, a macrocyclic antibiotic with K+ transport properties. J. Mol. Biol. 42, 603–606 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  473. Ovchinnikov, Yu. A., Ivanov, V. T., Evstratov, A. V., Bystrov, V. F., Abdullaev, N. D., Popov, E. M., Lipkind, G. M., Arkhipova, S. F., Efremov, E. S., and Shemyakin, M. M.: The physicochemical basis of the functioning of biological membranes: Dynamic conformational properties of enniatin B and its K+ complex in solution. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 37, 668–676 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  474. Linde, A.: Glycosaminoglycans of the dental pulp. A biochemical study. Scand. J. dent. Res. 81, 177–201 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  475. de Bernard, B., and, Vittur, F.: A glycoprotein from pre-osseus cartilage composition, Ca2+ binding properties and physiological implications. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 835–853. Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publishers and Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company 1974.
    Google Scholar
  476. Sandberg, L. B., Weissman, N., and Smith, D. W.: The purification and partial characterization of a soluble elastin-like protein from copper-deficient porcine aorta. Biochemistry 8, 2940–2945 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  477. Urist, M. R., Speer, D. P., Ibsen, K. J., and Strates, B. S.: Calcium binding by chondroitin sulfate. Calc. Tiss. Res. 2, 253–261 (1968).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  478. Linde, A.: Glycosaminoglycans of the odontoblast-predentine layer in dentinogenically active porcine teeth. Calc. Tiss. Res. 12, 281–294 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  479. Pedrini-Mille, A., and Pedrini, V.: Studies of human iliac crest cartilage. II. Proteinpolysaccharides of normal tissues. Calc. Tiss. Res. 8, 96–105 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  480. Herring, G. M., Andrews, A. T. de B., and Chipperfield, A. R.: Chemical structure of bone sialoprotein and a preliminary study of its calcium-binding properties. In: Cellular mechanisms for calcium transfer and homeostasis (eds. G. Nichols, Jr. and R. H. Wasserman), pp. 63–73. New York and London: Academic Press 1971.
    Google Scholar
  481. Feretti, J. L., Locatto, M. E., Savino, D., and Puche, R. C.: The effect of galactose on bone metabolism. Calc. Tiss. Res. 14, 169–175 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  482. Johnson, P. L., and Bevelander, G.: Histogenesis and histochemistry of pulpal calcification. J. dent. Res. 35, 714–722 (1956).
    CAS Google Scholar
  483. Appleton, J., and Williams, M. J. R.: Ultrastructural observations on the calcification of human dental pulp. Calc. Tiss. Res. 11, 222–237 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  484. Martin, J. H., and Matthews, J. L.: Mitochondrial granules in chondrocytes. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 184–193 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  485. Raff, R. A., and Mahler, H. R.: The non-symbiotic origin of mitochondria. Science 177, 575–582 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  486. Lehninger, A. L., Carafoli, E., and Rossi, C. S.: Energy-linked ion movements in mitochondrial systems. Adv. Enzym. 29, 259–319 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  487. Carafoli, E., and Lehninger, A. L.: A survey of the interaction of calcium ions with mitochondria from different tissues and species. Biochem. J. 122, 681–690 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  488. Matthews, J. L., Martin, J. H., Arsenis, C., Eisenstein, R., and Kuettner, K.: The role of mitochondria in intracellular calcium regulation. In: Cellular mechanisms for calcium transfer and homeostasis (eds. G. Nichols, Jr. and R. H. Wasserman), pp. 239–255. New York and London: Academic Press 1971.
    Google Scholar
  489. Matthews, J. L., Martin, J. H., Kennedy III, J. W., and Collins, E. J.: An ultrastructural study of calcium and phosphate deposition and exchange in tissues. In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 187–211. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North-Holland 1973.
    Google Scholar
  490. Sottocasa, G. L., Sandri, G., Panfili, E., Gazotti, P., and Carafoli, E.: The calcium binding glycoprotein from animal mitochondria. In: Calcium binding proteins (eds. W. Drabikowski, H. Strzelecka-Golaszewska and E. Carafoli), pp. 855–874. Amsterdam: Elsevier Scientific Publ. Comp. and Warszawa: PWN-Polish Scientific Publ. 1974.
    Google Scholar
  491. Bonucci, E.: The locus of initial calcification in cartilage and bone. Clin. Orthop. Rel. Res. 78, 108–139 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  492. Bonucci, E.: (Discussion). In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 202–211. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North-Holland 1973.
    Google Scholar
  493. Matthews, J. L., Martin, J. H., and Collins, E. J.: Intracellular calcium in epithelial cartilage and bone cells. Calc. Tiss. Res. 4 (Suppl.), 37–38 (1970).
    Google Scholar
  494. Shapiro, I. M., and Greenspan, J. S.: Are mitochondria directly involved in biological mineralisation? Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 100–102 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  495. Halstead, L. B.: Are mitochondria directly involved in biological mineralisation? The mitochondrion and the origin of bone. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 103–104 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  496. Elbrink, J., and Bihler, I.: Membrane transport: Its relation to cellular metabolic rates. Science 188, 1177–1184 (1975).
    CAS Google Scholar
  497. Urist, M. R.: Induced systemic hypersensitivity: Selye's theory. Science 137, 120–121 (1962).
    Google Scholar
  498. Anderson, H. C.: Calcium-accumulating vesicles in the intercellular matrix of bone. In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 213–245. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North-Holland 1973.
    Google Scholar
  499. Ali, S. Y., Sajdera, S. W., and Anderson, H. C.: Isolation and characterization of calcifying matrix vesicles from epiphyseal cartilage. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 67, 1513–1520 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  500. Wuthier, R. E., Bisaz, S., Russell, R. G. G., and Fleisch, H.: Relationship between pyrophosphate, amorphous calcium phosphate and other factors in the sequence of calcification in vivo. Calc. Tiss. Res. 10, 198–206 (1972).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  501. Cotmore, J. M., Nichols, G., and Wuthier, R. E.: Phospholipid-calcium phosphate complex. Enhanced calcium migration in the presence of phosphate. Science, 172, 1339–1341 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  502. Lenaz, G., Sechi, A. M., Masotti, L., and Parenti-Castelli, G.: Lipid-protein interactions in mitochondria. II. On the nature and biochemical significance of the interaction between phospholipids and lipid-depleted mitochondria. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 141, 89–97 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  503. Wuthier, R. E.: Lipids of mineralizing epiphyseal tissues in the bovine fetus. J. Lipid Res. 9, 58–78 (1968).
    Google Scholar
  504. Isemura, T.: Monomolecular layers. In: Colloidal surfactants (eds. K. Shinoda, T. Nakagawa, B.-I. Tamamushi and T. Isemura), pp. 251–290. New York and London: Academic Press 1963.
    Google Scholar
  505. Francis, M. D., and Webb, N. C.: Hydroxyapatite formation from a hydrated calcium mono-hydrogen phosphate precursor. Calc. Tiss. Res. 6, 335–342 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  506. Francis, M. D.: The inhibition of calcium hydroxyapatite crystal growth by polyphosphonates and polyphosphates. Calc. Tiss. Res. 3, 151–162 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  507. Fleisch, H., Russell, R. G. R., Bisaz, S., and Bonjour, J.-P.: The effects of pyrophosphate and diphosphonate on calcium metabolism. In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 331–358. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North-Holland 1973.
    Google Scholar
  508. Russell, R., Graham, G., Robertson, W. G., and Fleisch, H.: Inhibitors of mineralization. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 807–825. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  509. Francis, M. D., Briner, W. W., and Gray, J. A.: Chemical agents in the control of calcification processes in biological systems. In: Hard tissue growth, repair and remineralization (eds. K. Elliott and D. W. Fitzsimons), pp. 57–90. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier-Excerpta Medica-North-Holland 1973.
    Google Scholar
  510. Blondin, G. A., Vail, W. J., and Green, D. E.: The mechanism of mitochondrial swelling. II. Pseudoenergized swelling in the presence of alkali metal salts. Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 129, 158–172 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  511. Petruska, J. A., and Hodge, A. J.: In: Abstracts of Biophysical Society, 7th Ann. Meeting, Proteins II, Section TA 12, The Biophysical Society, New York (1963).
    Google Scholar
  512. Robinson, R. A., Doty, S. B., and Cooper, R. R.: Electron microscopy of mammalian bone. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 257–296. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  513. Höhling, H. J., Kreilos, R., Neubauer, G., and Boyde, A.: Electron microscopy and electron microscopical measurements of collagen mineralization in hard tissues. Ztschr. Zellforsch. Mikrosk. Anat. 122, 36–52 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  514. Bassett, C. A. L., and Herrmann, L.: Influence of oxygen concentration and mechanical factors on differentiation of connective tissue in vitro. Nature 190, 460–461 (1961).
    CAS Google Scholar
  515. Bassett, C. A. L.: Current concepts of bone formation. J. Bone Jt. Surg. 44 A, 1217–1244 (1962).
    Google Scholar
  516. Hall, B. K.: Cellular differentiation in skeletal tissues. Biol. Rev. 45, 455–484 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  517. Storey, E.: The dental implications of bone growth. In: Biological mineralization (ed. I. Zipkin), pp. 729–754. New York-London-Sydney-Toronto: John Wiley & Sons 1973.
    Google Scholar
  518. Felts, W. J. L.: In vivo implantation as a technique in skeletal biology. Int. Rev. Cytol 12, 243–302 (1961).
    CAS Google Scholar
  519. Hall, B. K.: Histochemical aspects of the differentiation of adventitious cartilage on the membrane bones of the embryo chick. Histochemie 16, 206–220 (1968).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  520. Johnson, L. C.: Morphological analysis in pathology: The kinetics of disease and general biology of bone. In: Bone biodynamics (ed. H. M. Frost), pp. 543–654). Boston: Little Brown and Comp. 1964.
    Google Scholar
  521. Hofmann, H. J., and Jackson, G. D.: Precambrian (Aphebian) microfossils from Belcher Islands, Hudson Bay. Can. J. Earth Sci. 6, 1137–1144 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  522. Pflug, H. D.: Einige Reste niederer Pflanzen aus dem Algonkium. Palaeontographica Abt. B 117, 59–74 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  523. Margulis, L.: Origin of eukaryotic cells. Yale Univ. Press, New Haven (1970).
    Google Scholar
  524. Cloud, P. E. Jr., Licari, G. R., Wright, L. A., and Troxel, B. W.: Proterozoic eucaryotes from eastern California. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 62, 623–630 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  525. Schopf, J. W., and Barghoorn, E. S.: Microorganisms from the late Precambrian of South Australia. J. Paleontol. 43, 111–118 (1969).
    Google Scholar
  526. Schopf, J. W., and Blacic, J. M.: New microorganisms from the Bitter Springs Formation (late Precambrian of the north-central Amadeus Basin, Australia). J. Paleontol. 45, 925–960 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  527. Schopf, W., Haugh, B. N., Molnar, R. E., and Satterthwait, D. F.: On the development of metaphytes and metazoans. J. Paleontol. 47, 1–9 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  528. Knoll, A. H., and Barghoorn, E. S.: Precambrian eukaryotic organisms: A reassessment of the evidence. Science 190, 52–54 (1975).
    Google Scholar
  529. Golubić, S., and Barghoorn, E. S.: Interpretation of microbial fossils, with special reference to the Precambrian. In: Fossil algae (ed. E. Flügel). Springer Verlag (in press).
    Google Scholar
  530. Towe, K. M.: Oxygen-collagen priority and the early metazoan fossil record. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 65, 781–788 (1970).
    CAS Google Scholar
  531. Lindström, M.: Conodonts. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier Publ. Comp. 1964.
    Google Scholar
  532. Halstead, L. B.: Calcified tissues in the earliest vertebrates. Calc. Res. Tiss. 3, 107–124 (1969).
    CAS Google Scholar
  533. Halstead, L. B.: The pattern of vertebrate evolution. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1969.
    Google Scholar
  534. Romer, A. S.: The “ancient history” of bone. In: Comparative biology of calcified tissue (ed. M. L. Moss) Ann. New York Acad. Sci. 109, 168–176 (1963).
    Google Scholar
  535. Denison, R. H.: The early history of the vertebrate calcified skeleton. Clin. Orthop. 31, 141–152 (1963).
    CAS Google Scholar
  536. Gross, W.: Die Fische des mittleren Old Red Sub-Livlands. Geol. PalÄontol. Abh. N. F. 18, 121–156 (1930).
    Google Scholar
  537. Denison, R. H.: Ordovician vertebrates from Western United States. Fieldiana, Geol. 16, 131–192 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  538. Ørvig, T.: Phylogeny of tooth tissue: Evolution of some calcified tissues in early vertebrates. In: Structural and chemical organization of teeth (ed. A. W. Miles), Vol. I, pp. 45–110. London and New York: Acad. Press 1967.
    Google Scholar
  539. Ørvig, T.: The dermal skeleton: General considerations. In: Current problems of lower vertebrate phylogeny (ed. T. Orvig), pp. 373–397). Stockholm: Amqvist Wiksell 1968.
    Google Scholar
  540. Westoll, T. S.: Radotina and other tesserate fishes. J. Linn. Soc. (Zool.) 47, 341–357 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  541. Iler, R. K.: Colloid chemistry of silica and silicates. Ithaca, N. Y.: Cornell University Press 1955.
    Google Scholar
  542. Underwoods, E. J.: Trace elements in human and animal nutrition. New York: Academic Press ed. 3 1971.
    Google Scholar
  543. Lowenstam, H. A.: Opal precipitation by marine gastropods (mollusca). Science 171, 487–490 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  544. Paasche, E.: Silicon and the ecology of marine plankton diatoms. I. Thalassiosira pseudonana (Cyclotella nana) grown in a chemostat with silicate as limiting nutrient. Mar. Biol. 19, 117–126 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  545. Paasche, E.: Silicon and the ecology of marine plankton diatoms. II. Silicate-uptake kinetics in five diatom species. Mar. Biol. 19, 262–269 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  546. Guillard, R. R. L., Kilham, P., and Jackson, T. A.: Kinetics of silicon-limited growth in the marine diatom Thalassiosira pseudonana Hasle and Heimdal (= Cyclotella nana Hustedt). J. Phycol. 9, 233–237 (1973).
    CAS Google Scholar
  547. Kilham, P.: A hypothesis concerning silica and the freshwater planctonic diatoms. Limnol. Oceanogr. 16, 10–18 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  548. Werner, D.: Silicoborate als erste nicht C-haltige Wachstumsfaktoren. Arch. Mikrobiol. 65, 258–274 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  549. Lewin, J. C., and Reimann, B. E. F.: Silicon and plant growth. Ann. Rev. Pl. Physiol. 20, 289–304 (1969).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  550. Werner, D., and Petersen, M.: Traceuntersuchungen mit 71Germanium im Silikatstoffwechsel von Diatomeen. Ztschr. Pflanzenphysiol. 70, 64–65 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  551. Lewin, J., and Chen, C. H.: Silicon metabolism in diatoms. VI. Silicic acid uptake by a colorless marine diatom, Nitzschia alba Lewin and Lewin. J. Phycol. 4, 161–166 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  552. Werner, D., and Stangier, E.: Silica and temperature dependent colony size of Bellerochea maleus f. biangulata. Phycologia (in press).
    Google Scholar
  553. Werner, D., and Pirson, A.: über reversible Speicherung von KieselsÄure in Cyclotella cryptica. Arch. Mikrobiol. 56, 43–50 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  554. Reimann, B. E. F., Lewin, J. C., and Volcani, B. E.: Studies on the biochemistry and fine structure of silica shell formation in diatoms. I. The structure of the cell wall of Cylindrotheca fusiformis Reimann and Lewin, J. Cell. Biol. 24, 39–55 (1965).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  555. Stoermer, E. F., Pankratz, H. S., and Bowen, C. C.: Fine structure of the diatom Amphipleura pellucida. II. Cytoplasmic fine structure and frustule formation. Amer. J. Bot. 52, 1067–1078 (1965).
    Google Scholar
  556. Carlisle, E. M.: Silicon: An essential element for the chick. Science 178, 619–621 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  557. Barnum, D. W.: Catechol complexes with silicon. Inorg. Chem. 9, 1942–1943 (1970).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  558. Coombs, J., and Volcani, B. E.: Studies on the biochemistry and fine structure of silicashell formation in diatoms. Chemical changes in the wall of Navicula pelliculosa during its formation. Planta (Berl.) 82, 280–292 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  559. Allan, G. G., Lewin, J., and Johnson, P. G.: Marine polymers. IV. Diatom polysaccharides. Botanica Marina 15, 102–108 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  560. Shore, R. E.: Axial filament of siliceous sponge spicules, its organic components and synthesis. Biol. Bull. 143, 689–698 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  561. Schwab, D. W., and Shore, R. E.: Fine structure and composition of a siliceous sponge spicule. Biol. Bull. 140, 125–136 (1971).
    CAS Google Scholar
  562. Travis, D. F., Francois, C. J., Bonar, L. C., and Glimcher, M. J.: Comparative studies of the organic matrices of invertebrate mineralized tissues. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 18, 519–550 (1967).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  563. Hecky, R. E., Mopper, K., and Degens, E. T.: The amino acid and sugar composition of diatom cell-walls. Mar. Biol. 19, 323–331 (1973).
    Article CAS Google Scholar
  564. Reimann, B. E. F., Lewin, J. C., and Volcani, B. E.: Studies on the biochemistry and fine structure of silica shell formation in diatoms. II. The structure of the cell wall of Navicula pelliculosa (Bréb) Hilse. J. Phycol. 2, 74–84 (1966).
    Google Scholar
  565. Kamatani, A.: Physical and chemical characteristics of biogenous silica Mar. Biol. 8, 89–95 (1971).
    Google Scholar
  566. Lewin, J. C.: The dissolution of silica from diatom cell walls. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 21, 182–189 (1961).
    CAS Google Scholar
  567. Calvert, S. E.: Silica balance in the ocean and diagenesis. Nature 219, 919–920 (1968).
    CAS Google Scholar
  568. Mackenzie, F. T., Garrels, R. M., Bricker, O. P., and Bickley, F.: Silica in sea water: Control by silica minerals. Science 155, 1404–1405 (1967).
    CAS Google Scholar
  569. Sillén, L. G.: Gibbs phase rule and marine sediments. In “Equilibrium concepts in natural water systems”. Amer. Chem. Soc., Adv. Chem. Ser. 67, 57–69 (1967).
    Google Scholar
  570. Wise Jr., S. W., Buie, B. F., and Weaver, F. M.: Chemically precipitated sedimentary cristobalite and the origin of chert. Eclog. Geol. Helv. 65, 157–163 (1972).
    CAS Google Scholar
  571. Waiter, M. R., Bauld, J., and Brock, T. D.: Siliceous algal and bacterial stromatolites in hot spring and geyser effluents of Yellowstone National Park. Science 178, 402–405 (1972).
    Google Scholar
  572. Cisne, J. L.: Trilobites and the origin of arthropods. Science 186, 13–18 (1974).
    Google Scholar
  573. Towe, K. M.: Trilobite eyes: Calcified lenses in vivo. Science 179, 1007–1009 (1973).
    Google Scholar
  574. Harper, H. E. Jr., and Knoll, A. H.: Silica, diatoms, and Cenozoic radiolarian evolution. Geology 3, 175–177 (1975).
    Article Google Scholar

Download references