Petr Matous ペトゥル・マトウシュ - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Papers by Petr Matous ペトゥル・マトウシュ

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Geography and Social Networks on Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Technology: Evidence from Rural Ethiopia

... The authors would like to thank Tadesse Sefera Gela and other enumerators for their great eff... more ... The authors would like to thank Tadesse Sefera Gela and other enumerators for their great effort in collecting household-level data, Tolessa Debele, Toshiro Mado, Kiyoshi Shiratori, Hideki Watanabe, Solomon Gelalcha Woyessa, and Terefe Degefa for their helpful ...

Research paper thumbnail of Boots are made for walking: interactions across physical and social space in infrastructure-poor regions

While detailed data are available on people's travel behavior in industrialized countries, little... more While detailed data are available on people's travel behavior in industrialized countries, little is known about the spatial characteristics of activities of those living in vast infrastructure-poor areas in the developing world where walking is still the dominant form of transport. We have interviewed 297 randomly selected inhabitants of Tiyo District, Ethiopia, and by random name cues identified 4158 individuals who are a representative cross-section of everyone the informants knew and met. Consequently, we inquired about the distance to these individuals, frequency of contacting them, and the mode of contact. Half of the respondents' social contacts lived within 15-min walking distance and the interviewed inhabitants contacted 98% of all people that they knew only by walking and meeting face-to-face. After examining the determinants of the size, density, and geographical extent of the inhabitants' personal networks, we employed multilevel analysis to explore the relevance of physical and social distance as well as personal characteristics for frequency of interaction. We found that in addition to the strong impact of walking time (À), common organization membership (À), the same religious affiliation (+), kinship (+), and patience (À) also predict the frequency of meetings. From this we present comparisons of the variables' relative effects and conclude with practical implications.

Research paper thumbnail of HOW DO SUPPLY CHAIN NETWORKS AFFECT THE RESILIENCE OF FIRMS TO NATURAL DISASTERS? EVIDENCE FROM THE GREAT EAST JAPAN EARTHQUAKE

Journal of Regional Science, 2014

This paper examines how supply chain networks affected the resilience of firms to the Great East ... more This paper examines how supply chain networks affected the resilience of firms to the Great East Japan Earthquake, particularly looking at the effects on the time period before resuming operations after the earthquake and sales growth from the pre-to the post-earthquake period. The results indicate that the expansion of supply chain networks has two opposing effects on the resilience of firms to disasters. On the one hand, when firms are connected with more firms through supply chain networks, they are more likely to experience disruptions in supply and demand, which delay recovery. On the other hand, firms can benefit from diversified networks with suppliers and clients because they can substitute the surviving firms in the network for the damaged partners and receive support from them. Our results indicate that the latter positive effect on recovery exceeds the former's negative effect for many types of network, implying that diversified supply chain networks lead to the resilience of firms to natural disasters.

Research paper thumbnail of Emergence of multiplex mobile phone communication networks across rural areas: An Ethiopian experiment

Network Science, 2014

Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the p... more Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the potential of the new communication technologies for increasing individuals’ access to information and diffusion of attitudes and practices across rural areas of developing countries?” We have donated phones to 234 farmers selected by stratified random sampling in an agrarian region of Ethiopia and have tracked their main communication partners for six months. The panel data and qualitative interviews indicated that the phones were not typically used to expand the existing constrained social networks or to gain information from new sources but to call alters within the original networks and individuals introduced through the experiment. Stochastic actor-based network models clarified that although agricultural information-seeking and casual calling are intertwined, the mechanisms underlying the evolution of instrumental and expressive communication networks are distinct. Acquaintances living beyond comfortable walking distances and individuals whom others call became preferred for information-seeking calls. These tendencies enable faster information exchange within the original social network and support the creation of information hubs that might potentially facilitate more efficient information diffusion over long distances in the future. In contrast, the importance of geographical communities strongly prevails in casual phone conversations. Physically proximate community members who tend to be met frequently were preferred for sentiment-sharing calls. Preferential attachment was not evident for this type of communication. As a result, the network of these expressive calls was highly localized and fragmented, making it unlikely for personal feelings to diffuse across wide geographical areas through the new phone networks.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of business networks on firm growth in a cluster of microenterprises: Evidence from rural Ethiopia

Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture... more Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture to nonfarm activities. Clustering of micro-enterprises in rural areas can promote nonfarm income. This study examines the determinants of growth in sales and skill levels of microenterprises in a tailor cluster in rural Ethiopia, focusing on the role of business networks. We collected panel data, including measures of business networks through procurement, outsourcing, and financing, for three years from 136 firms, the population in the "survival" cluster. The results show that when firms are closer to the center of business networks, i.e., firms are characterized by a higher centrality measure, they are more likely to increase sales. However, although network centrality is also associated with a higher level of tailoring skills, the skill level itself has no significant effect on sales. The finding implies that consumers in the area are not concerned much about the quality of products. Therefore, while expanding business networks can promote sales and skill levels, incentives to upgrade skills are minimal.

Research paper thumbnail of Roles of extension and ethno-religious networks in acceptance of resource-conserving agriculture among Ethiopian farmers

International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 2013

ABSTRACT This article analyses roles of social and extension networks in adoption of resource-con... more ABSTRACT This article analyses roles of social and extension networks in adoption of resource-conserving practices among Ethiopian farmers. We gathered data from 297 randomly sampled households on their agricultural practices, social networks, access to the extension, and geographical location. After examining general determinants of practising resource-conserving agriculture, we employ a two-stage regression with full-maximum likelihood correction for selection bias to establish the roles of general social networks and external professionals in acceptance of conservation techniques. In accordance with previous research, probit regression in the first stage shows that the access to extension increases with farmers’ wealth and the size of their personal networks, and decreases with the distance of their households from village centres. However, after accounting for this unequal access to extension, the second-stage linear regression shows that regardless of education, wealth or geographical location, those whose religion and ethnicity match with their agent, report learning more about conservation from extension sources. Furthermore, farmers who are socially well connected within the community tend to be less receptive to agents’ recommendations regarding resource conservation. Dissemination policy of conservation agriculture should consider the ethnic and religious affinity between farmers and their extension agents. It also needs to pay more attention to socially and geographically isolated individuals.

Research paper thumbnail of Integrity Norms of Multilateral Development Bank Employees

As funding agencies for infrastructure projects, multilateral development banks play crucial role... more As funding agencies for infrastructure projects, multilateral development banks play crucial roles in preventing the occurrence of fraud and corruption. This research employs a mixed methods approach to investigate the integrity norms of a multilateral development bank. A questionnaire survey was conducted to explore two aspects of integrity norms—procurement processes and social interactions—among employees working at a multilateral development bank. A regression analysis revealed that more experienced employees displayed looser integrity norms in procurement processes relative to those who were less experienced; additionally, employees directly responsible for project delivery and those hired internationally displayed looser integrity norms with respect to social interactions. A qualitative interview with and a focus group discussion among the employees indicated that their more lenient approaches toward integrity norms may result from adaptive practices intended to produce effective project delivery.

Research paper thumbnail of Social networks and environmental management at multiple levels: soil conservation in Sumatra

Many agrarian communities in developing countries suffer from insufficient productivity and use f... more Many agrarian communities in developing countries suffer from insufficient productivity and use farming practices that deteriorate the environment both locally and globally. Research suggests that social networks play a role in environmental management, different studies emphasize different aspects of network structures, and the implications of the scales at which networks operate are not explicitly discussed. Here, I ask what types of social structures in farmer networks are conducive to environmental protection and agricultural productivity enhancement, and I show that the answer depends on the scale of the investigation. Using original data representing 16 farmer groups comprising 315 households and 1575 information-sharing links, I analyzed the structure of farmers’ social connections in relation to their soil conservation and productivity-enhancing practices, assessed through their usage of organic and chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, I conducted qualitative interviews with 25 stakeholders from different levels of the agricultural system to gain additional insights into the drivers of farmers’ behaviors. The quantitative analysis distinguishes the effects of intra- and extra-group links and reciprocity at the household and group levels. Fixed-effects logistic regression was applied at the household level to examine farmers’ soil management practices. At the collective level, I used linear regression to estimate the proportion of adopters for each soil management practice. A lack of education and a lack of extra-group links are associated with unproductive practices, and a lack of reciprocity is associated with a lack of conservation efforts at both the household and collective levels. Dense intra-group links have opposite effects at the two levels. Whereas links within the farmer groups are associated with unproductive soil management by households, these links are associated with productivity maximization at the collective level. Qualitative interviews showed that farmers who opt for organic fertilizers do so partially because of pressure from global traders, mediated through external links and amplified by dense and reciprocal relations within their groups. The results highlight the need for environmental management policies to be based on research at multiple scales and demonstrate that, counter-intuitively, increasing global economic interconnectivity may, in some cases, stimulate the adoption of conservation practices via local social networks.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of motorized transport and mobile phones in the diffusion of agricultural information in Tanggamus Regency, Indonesia

Limited access to agricultural information constrains the well-being of farmers in developing cou... more Limited access to agricultural information constrains the well-being of farmers in developing countries and leads to environmental deterioration. Although new information-communication technologies (ICTs) are expected to alleviate this problem, the importance of physical mobility is rarely considered. This study explores the roles of motorized transport and mobile phones in the diffusion of agricultural information within and between Indonesian farming communities. In 2012, we surveyed 315 household heads from 16 coffee and cocoa farming groups in Sumatra. The respondents identified 1,575 sources from which they obtained agricultural information, the exact location of the sources, and the mode of contact. In 2013, we followed up with in-depth interviews of 20 farmers to obtain a qualitative description of their agricultural information-seeking behavior. Although 75% of respondents had a mobile phone, the main mode of information sharing was face-to-face meetings for 97% of the elicited relationships. Mobile phones were used to communicate with people living at the edge of the regular physical mobility radius enabled by motorbikes (approximately 10 km). A hierarchical logit model was applied to examine the implications of the respondents’ tendency to use motorized transport vis-à-vis walking for information gathering. Respondents with a higher general preference for faster transport tended to have more extensive access to information from other communities. However, we also find weak evidence that individual motorized transport might decrease internal social contact and information exchange inside these communities. The policy implication for rural development in less-industrialized countries is that providing ICTs without increasing the inhabitants’ mobility through appropriate means may not significantly improve the inhabitants’ access to important information and the diffusion of successful agricultural practices.

Research paper thumbnail of EXPLORING DYNAMIC MECHANISMS OF LEARNING NETWORKS FOR RESOURCE CONSERVATION

The importance of networks for socio-ecological processes has been recognized in the literature; ... more The importance of networks for socio-ecological processes has been recognized in the literature; however, existing studies have not sufficiently addressed the dynamic nature of networks. Using data on the social learning networks of 265 farmers in Ethiopia for 2011 and 2012 and stochastic actor-oriented modeling, we explain the mechanisms of network evolution and soil conservation. The farmers’ preferences for information exchange within the same social groups support the creation of interactive, clustered, nonhierarchical structures within the evolving learning networks, which contributed to the diffusion of the practice of composting. The introduced methods can be applied to determine whether and how social networks can be used to facilitate environmental interventions in various contexts.

Research paper thumbnail of "Dissolve the Keiretsu, or Die": A longitudinal study of disintermediation in the Japanese automobile manufacturing supply networks

Abstract Under unstable global economic conditions and an increasing competition for customers in... more Abstract
Under unstable global economic conditions and an increasing competition for customers in the emerging markets of
lower income countries, Japanese automotive parts manufacturers and assemblers are striving to minimize their
procurement costs to remain competitive. Applying stochastic actor-oriented network models to the procurement
data of the 100 largest Japanese automobile firms in 2006 and 2011, this study explores (1) the predominant supply
chain management strategies in the automobile industry; (2) the dynamics of the manufacturers’ revenue; and (3) the
interactions between the supply chain structures and revenue. In contrast to supply networks among major
companies in other sectors of the Japanese economy, the present results do not reveal a clear tendency to preserve
cliquish trading groups. On the contrary, during this challenging economic period, Japanese carmakers sought to
bypass traditional intermediary partners in their supply chains and directly access upstream parts manufacturers with
lower margins. The firms that pursued this strategy were rewarded with higher revenue. The novel network analytic
method specifically discerns that the disintermediation and the diversification of supply chains precede firms’
success in sales (rather than vice versa). The results suggest a potential challenge for the traditional keiretsu
structure among Japanese automotive manufacturers in the new global economic environment.

Research paper thumbnail of The Strength of Long Ties and the Weakness of Strong Ties: Knowledge Diffusion through Supply Chain Networks

This paper examines the effect of the structure of supply chain networks on productivity and inno... more This paper examines the effect of the structure of supply chain networks on productivity and innovation capability through knowledge diffusion, using large firm-level panel data for Japan. We find that ties with distant suppliers improve productivity, as measured by sales per worker, possibly attributed to intermediates from distant firms embodying more diversified knowledge than from neighboring firms. Ties with neighboring clients also improve productivity, which may be a result of diffusion of disembodied knowledge from neighboring clients being more effective than from distant clients. By contrast, ties with distant suppliers and clients improve innovative capability, as measured by the number of patent applications, suggesting the importance of a diversity of knowledge from distant firms for innovation. In addition, the density of a firm's ego network, which is measured by how densely its supply chain partners transact with each other, is found to have a negative effect on productivity and innovative capability, implying knowledge redundancy in dense networks. Overall, our results emphasize the importance of diversified partners in knowledge diffusion through supply chain networks.

TODO Yasuyuki
RIETI and Waseda University
Petr MATOUS
The University of Tokyo
INOUE Hiroyasu
Osaka Sangyo University

Research paper thumbnail of Problem-solving discourse on an international construction site: Patterns and practices

Highlights 1) We analyse problem-solving communication in an international construction project. ... more Highlights

  1. We analyse problem-solving communication in an international construction project.
  2. Willingness to communicate, professional and contractual knowledge are essential.
  3. Inadequate relationship-building may constrain the opportunities for problem-solving.

Abstract
This paper analyses the discursive realisation of on-site problem-solving encounters in a large international construction project in Hong Kong. Specifically, the analyses focus on professional English as a lingua franca interactions between the engineers from Japan who are full-time employees of the company heading the joint venture, and contracted Hong-Kongese foremen and engineers. A combination of methods and several data sources are used to interpret the interlocutors' communications and relationships, and show how certain items, for instance problem, issue and if, as well as evaluative items such as metaphors and idioms, index discursive practices and patterns during problem solving. These data sources include fully transcribed spoken interactions, interviews with the participants and expert informants, and researcher field notes. The results shed light on the key intertextual role the contract plays in the context of construction industry problem solving, the various bodies that are involved in addressing complex problems, and the importance of the foreman and on-site engineer relationship.

Research paper thumbnail of 農業普及員による直接的技術移転とソーシャルラーニングを介した間接的技術移転 -エチオピアの農村を事例として-

国際開発研究、第23巻第1号, 2014

石川達也、Petr Matous、石渡文子、戸堂康之 (2014) 農業普及員による直接的技術移転とソーシャルラーニングを介した間接的技術移転 -エチオピアの農村を事例として, 国際開発研究、... more 石川達也、Petr Matous、石渡文子、戸堂康之 (2014) 農業普及員による直接的技術移転とソーシャルラーニングを介した間接的技術移転 -エチオピアの農村を事例として, 国際開発研究、第23巻第1号, 175-188.

Research paper thumbnail of The Effects of Endogenous Interdependencies on Trade Network Formation across Space among Major Japanese Firms; 内生的相互依存関係が日本の大企業の取引ネットワークの形成に及ぼす効果

The network structures of interfirm interactions have been linked previously to disaster resilien... more The network structures of interfirm interactions have been linked previously to disaster resilience. However, the dynamic drivers of interfirm network structures rarely have been explored in the literature. This paper uses stochastic actor-oriented modeling to examine how networks of economic interactions among the 500 largest Japanese companies were created and maintained between 2010 and 2011, i.e., before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake. Controlling for geographical distance between firms' headquarters and for firm size, we find that firms preferred trading partners that generally were popular among other firms, had clients in common with them, and also had bought some products or services from them, and that firms avoided firms with connections to independent suppliers in other cliques. These tendencies have potential implications for disaster resilience and the revival of the Japanese economy.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Business Networks on Firm Growth in a Cluster of Microenterprises: Evidence from rural Ethiopia

Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture... more Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture to nonfarm activities. Clustering of micro-enterprises in rural areas can promote nonfarm income. This study examines the determinants of growth in sales and skill levels of microenterprises in a tailor cluster in rural Ethiopia, focusing on the role of business networks. We collected panel data, including measures of business networks through procurement, outsourcing, and financing, for three years from 136 firms, the population in the "survival" cluster. The results show that when firms are closer to the center of business networks, i.e., firms are characterized by a higher centrality measure, they are more likely to increase sales. However, although network centrality is also associated with a higher level of tailoring skills, the skill level itself has no significant effect on sales. The finding implies that consumers in the area are not concerned much about the quality of products. Therefore, while expanding business networks can promote sales and skill levels, incentives to upgrade skills are minimal.

Research paper thumbnail of Emergence of multiplex mobile phone communication networks across rural areas: An Ethiopian experiment

Network Science, 2014

Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the p... more Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the potential of the new communication technologies for increasing individuals’ access to information and diffusion of attitudes and practices across rural areas of developing countries?” We have donated phones to 234 farmers selected by stratified random sampling in an agrarian region of Ethiopia and have tracked their main communication partners for six months. The panel data and qualitative interviews indicated that the phones were not typically used to expand the existing constrained social networks or to gain information from new sources but to call alters within the original networks and individuals introduced through the experiment. Stochastic actor-based network models clarified that although agricultural information-seeking and casual calling are intertwined, the mechanisms underlying the evolution of instrumental and expressive communication networks are distinct. Acquaintances living beyond comfortable walking distances and individuals whom others call became preferred for information-seeking calls. These tendencies enable faster information exchange within the original social network and support the creation of information hubs that might potentially facilitate more efficient information diffusion over long distances in the future. In contrast, the importance of geographical communities strongly prevails in casual phone conversations. Physically proximate community members who tend to be met frequently were preferred for sentiment-sharing calls. Preferential attachment was not evident for this type of communication. As a result, the network of these expressive calls was highly localized and fragmented, making it unlikely for personal feelings to diffuse across wide geographical areas through the new phone networks.

Research paper thumbnail of 絆が災害に対して強靭な企業をつくる-東日本大震災からの教訓-

Research paper thumbnail of How Do Supply Chain Networks Affect the Resilience of  Firms to Natural Disasters? Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake

This paper uses firm-level data to examine how supply chain networks affected the recovery of fir... more This paper uses firm-level data to examine how supply chain networks affected the recovery of firms from the Great East Japan Earthquake. Extensive supply chains can negatively affect recovery through higher vulnerability to network disruption and positively through support from trading partners, easier search for new partners, and general benefits of agglomeration. Our results indicate that networks with firms outside of the impacted area contributed to the earlier resumption of production, whereas networks within the region contributed to sales recovery in the medium term. The results suggest that the positive effects of supply chains typically exceed the negative effects.

Research paper thumbnail of The making and unmaking of community-based water  supplies in Manila

Development in Practice (accepted, forthcoming)

"This article tracks the rise and fall of a community-based water supply program in Manila, pro... more "This article tracks the rise and fall of a community-based water supply program in Manila,
providing important insights into the issues of community participatory approaches to service
provision, as well as the privatization of basic services and public goods. The Manila Water
Corporation, a private, for-profit company, developed an innovative program to provide water
to slum communities through bulk connections, deploying the discourse of ‘public
participation’ to effectively transfer responsibility for distribution and collection of payments
to local water users’ organizations. The program achieved considerable success, and also
empowered local organizations or (more often) individuals, who used some of their increased
legitimacy, influence and income to mobilize for squatters’ rights, challenging landlords and
local governments. After an initial period, the company changed its policy and shifted instead
to a program that provides individual connections to slum households, supported by subsidies
from the government and international aid agencies. This article chronicles and analyses the
origins, growth, controversies and eventual decline of community-based water supply in
Manila’s slums. The article concludes with suggestions on how community-based organizations
can provide water supply services effectively and equitably, discussing as well the capacitybuilding and social transformation benefits of such an approach. "

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Geography and Social Networks on Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Technology: Evidence from Rural Ethiopia

... The authors would like to thank Tadesse Sefera Gela and other enumerators for their great eff... more ... The authors would like to thank Tadesse Sefera Gela and other enumerators for their great effort in collecting household-level data, Tolessa Debele, Toshiro Mado, Kiyoshi Shiratori, Hideki Watanabe, Solomon Gelalcha Woyessa, and Terefe Degefa for their helpful ...

Research paper thumbnail of Boots are made for walking: interactions across physical and social space in infrastructure-poor regions

While detailed data are available on people's travel behavior in industrialized countries, little... more While detailed data are available on people's travel behavior in industrialized countries, little is known about the spatial characteristics of activities of those living in vast infrastructure-poor areas in the developing world where walking is still the dominant form of transport. We have interviewed 297 randomly selected inhabitants of Tiyo District, Ethiopia, and by random name cues identified 4158 individuals who are a representative cross-section of everyone the informants knew and met. Consequently, we inquired about the distance to these individuals, frequency of contacting them, and the mode of contact. Half of the respondents' social contacts lived within 15-min walking distance and the interviewed inhabitants contacted 98% of all people that they knew only by walking and meeting face-to-face. After examining the determinants of the size, density, and geographical extent of the inhabitants' personal networks, we employed multilevel analysis to explore the relevance of physical and social distance as well as personal characteristics for frequency of interaction. We found that in addition to the strong impact of walking time (À), common organization membership (À), the same religious affiliation (+), kinship (+), and patience (À) also predict the frequency of meetings. From this we present comparisons of the variables' relative effects and conclude with practical implications.

Research paper thumbnail of HOW DO SUPPLY CHAIN NETWORKS AFFECT THE RESILIENCE OF FIRMS TO NATURAL DISASTERS? EVIDENCE FROM THE GREAT EAST JAPAN EARTHQUAKE

Journal of Regional Science, 2014

This paper examines how supply chain networks affected the resilience of firms to the Great East ... more This paper examines how supply chain networks affected the resilience of firms to the Great East Japan Earthquake, particularly looking at the effects on the time period before resuming operations after the earthquake and sales growth from the pre-to the post-earthquake period. The results indicate that the expansion of supply chain networks has two opposing effects on the resilience of firms to disasters. On the one hand, when firms are connected with more firms through supply chain networks, they are more likely to experience disruptions in supply and demand, which delay recovery. On the other hand, firms can benefit from diversified networks with suppliers and clients because they can substitute the surviving firms in the network for the damaged partners and receive support from them. Our results indicate that the latter positive effect on recovery exceeds the former's negative effect for many types of network, implying that diversified supply chain networks lead to the resilience of firms to natural disasters.

Research paper thumbnail of Emergence of multiplex mobile phone communication networks across rural areas: An Ethiopian experiment

Network Science, 2014

Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the p... more Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the potential of the new communication technologies for increasing individuals’ access to information and diffusion of attitudes and practices across rural areas of developing countries?” We have donated phones to 234 farmers selected by stratified random sampling in an agrarian region of Ethiopia and have tracked their main communication partners for six months. The panel data and qualitative interviews indicated that the phones were not typically used to expand the existing constrained social networks or to gain information from new sources but to call alters within the original networks and individuals introduced through the experiment. Stochastic actor-based network models clarified that although agricultural information-seeking and casual calling are intertwined, the mechanisms underlying the evolution of instrumental and expressive communication networks are distinct. Acquaintances living beyond comfortable walking distances and individuals whom others call became preferred for information-seeking calls. These tendencies enable faster information exchange within the original social network and support the creation of information hubs that might potentially facilitate more efficient information diffusion over long distances in the future. In contrast, the importance of geographical communities strongly prevails in casual phone conversations. Physically proximate community members who tend to be met frequently were preferred for sentiment-sharing calls. Preferential attachment was not evident for this type of communication. As a result, the network of these expressive calls was highly localized and fragmented, making it unlikely for personal feelings to diffuse across wide geographical areas through the new phone networks.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of business networks on firm growth in a cluster of microenterprises: Evidence from rural Ethiopia

Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture... more Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture to nonfarm activities. Clustering of micro-enterprises in rural areas can promote nonfarm income. This study examines the determinants of growth in sales and skill levels of microenterprises in a tailor cluster in rural Ethiopia, focusing on the role of business networks. We collected panel data, including measures of business networks through procurement, outsourcing, and financing, for three years from 136 firms, the population in the "survival" cluster. The results show that when firms are closer to the center of business networks, i.e., firms are characterized by a higher centrality measure, they are more likely to increase sales. However, although network centrality is also associated with a higher level of tailoring skills, the skill level itself has no significant effect on sales. The finding implies that consumers in the area are not concerned much about the quality of products. Therefore, while expanding business networks can promote sales and skill levels, incentives to upgrade skills are minimal.

Research paper thumbnail of Roles of extension and ethno-religious networks in acceptance of resource-conserving agriculture among Ethiopian farmers

International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 2013

ABSTRACT This article analyses roles of social and extension networks in adoption of resource-con... more ABSTRACT This article analyses roles of social and extension networks in adoption of resource-conserving practices among Ethiopian farmers. We gathered data from 297 randomly sampled households on their agricultural practices, social networks, access to the extension, and geographical location. After examining general determinants of practising resource-conserving agriculture, we employ a two-stage regression with full-maximum likelihood correction for selection bias to establish the roles of general social networks and external professionals in acceptance of conservation techniques. In accordance with previous research, probit regression in the first stage shows that the access to extension increases with farmers’ wealth and the size of their personal networks, and decreases with the distance of their households from village centres. However, after accounting for this unequal access to extension, the second-stage linear regression shows that regardless of education, wealth or geographical location, those whose religion and ethnicity match with their agent, report learning more about conservation from extension sources. Furthermore, farmers who are socially well connected within the community tend to be less receptive to agents’ recommendations regarding resource conservation. Dissemination policy of conservation agriculture should consider the ethnic and religious affinity between farmers and their extension agents. It also needs to pay more attention to socially and geographically isolated individuals.

Research paper thumbnail of Integrity Norms of Multilateral Development Bank Employees

As funding agencies for infrastructure projects, multilateral development banks play crucial role... more As funding agencies for infrastructure projects, multilateral development banks play crucial roles in preventing the occurrence of fraud and corruption. This research employs a mixed methods approach to investigate the integrity norms of a multilateral development bank. A questionnaire survey was conducted to explore two aspects of integrity norms—procurement processes and social interactions—among employees working at a multilateral development bank. A regression analysis revealed that more experienced employees displayed looser integrity norms in procurement processes relative to those who were less experienced; additionally, employees directly responsible for project delivery and those hired internationally displayed looser integrity norms with respect to social interactions. A qualitative interview with and a focus group discussion among the employees indicated that their more lenient approaches toward integrity norms may result from adaptive practices intended to produce effective project delivery.

Research paper thumbnail of Social networks and environmental management at multiple levels: soil conservation in Sumatra

Many agrarian communities in developing countries suffer from insufficient productivity and use f... more Many agrarian communities in developing countries suffer from insufficient productivity and use farming practices that deteriorate the environment both locally and globally. Research suggests that social networks play a role in environmental management, different studies emphasize different aspects of network structures, and the implications of the scales at which networks operate are not explicitly discussed. Here, I ask what types of social structures in farmer networks are conducive to environmental protection and agricultural productivity enhancement, and I show that the answer depends on the scale of the investigation. Using original data representing 16 farmer groups comprising 315 households and 1575 information-sharing links, I analyzed the structure of farmers’ social connections in relation to their soil conservation and productivity-enhancing practices, assessed through their usage of organic and chemical fertilizers. Furthermore, I conducted qualitative interviews with 25 stakeholders from different levels of the agricultural system to gain additional insights into the drivers of farmers’ behaviors. The quantitative analysis distinguishes the effects of intra- and extra-group links and reciprocity at the household and group levels. Fixed-effects logistic regression was applied at the household level to examine farmers’ soil management practices. At the collective level, I used linear regression to estimate the proportion of adopters for each soil management practice. A lack of education and a lack of extra-group links are associated with unproductive practices, and a lack of reciprocity is associated with a lack of conservation efforts at both the household and collective levels. Dense intra-group links have opposite effects at the two levels. Whereas links within the farmer groups are associated with unproductive soil management by households, these links are associated with productivity maximization at the collective level. Qualitative interviews showed that farmers who opt for organic fertilizers do so partially because of pressure from global traders, mediated through external links and amplified by dense and reciprocal relations within their groups. The results highlight the need for environmental management policies to be based on research at multiple scales and demonstrate that, counter-intuitively, increasing global economic interconnectivity may, in some cases, stimulate the adoption of conservation practices via local social networks.

Research paper thumbnail of The role of motorized transport and mobile phones in the diffusion of agricultural information in Tanggamus Regency, Indonesia

Limited access to agricultural information constrains the well-being of farmers in developing cou... more Limited access to agricultural information constrains the well-being of farmers in developing countries and leads to environmental deterioration. Although new information-communication technologies (ICTs) are expected to alleviate this problem, the importance of physical mobility is rarely considered. This study explores the roles of motorized transport and mobile phones in the diffusion of agricultural information within and between Indonesian farming communities. In 2012, we surveyed 315 household heads from 16 coffee and cocoa farming groups in Sumatra. The respondents identified 1,575 sources from which they obtained agricultural information, the exact location of the sources, and the mode of contact. In 2013, we followed up with in-depth interviews of 20 farmers to obtain a qualitative description of their agricultural information-seeking behavior. Although 75% of respondents had a mobile phone, the main mode of information sharing was face-to-face meetings for 97% of the elicited relationships. Mobile phones were used to communicate with people living at the edge of the regular physical mobility radius enabled by motorbikes (approximately 10 km). A hierarchical logit model was applied to examine the implications of the respondents’ tendency to use motorized transport vis-à-vis walking for information gathering. Respondents with a higher general preference for faster transport tended to have more extensive access to information from other communities. However, we also find weak evidence that individual motorized transport might decrease internal social contact and information exchange inside these communities. The policy implication for rural development in less-industrialized countries is that providing ICTs without increasing the inhabitants’ mobility through appropriate means may not significantly improve the inhabitants’ access to important information and the diffusion of successful agricultural practices.

Research paper thumbnail of EXPLORING DYNAMIC MECHANISMS OF LEARNING NETWORKS FOR RESOURCE CONSERVATION

The importance of networks for socio-ecological processes has been recognized in the literature; ... more The importance of networks for socio-ecological processes has been recognized in the literature; however, existing studies have not sufficiently addressed the dynamic nature of networks. Using data on the social learning networks of 265 farmers in Ethiopia for 2011 and 2012 and stochastic actor-oriented modeling, we explain the mechanisms of network evolution and soil conservation. The farmers’ preferences for information exchange within the same social groups support the creation of interactive, clustered, nonhierarchical structures within the evolving learning networks, which contributed to the diffusion of the practice of composting. The introduced methods can be applied to determine whether and how social networks can be used to facilitate environmental interventions in various contexts.

Research paper thumbnail of "Dissolve the Keiretsu, or Die": A longitudinal study of disintermediation in the Japanese automobile manufacturing supply networks

Abstract Under unstable global economic conditions and an increasing competition for customers in... more Abstract
Under unstable global economic conditions and an increasing competition for customers in the emerging markets of
lower income countries, Japanese automotive parts manufacturers and assemblers are striving to minimize their
procurement costs to remain competitive. Applying stochastic actor-oriented network models to the procurement
data of the 100 largest Japanese automobile firms in 2006 and 2011, this study explores (1) the predominant supply
chain management strategies in the automobile industry; (2) the dynamics of the manufacturers’ revenue; and (3) the
interactions between the supply chain structures and revenue. In contrast to supply networks among major
companies in other sectors of the Japanese economy, the present results do not reveal a clear tendency to preserve
cliquish trading groups. On the contrary, during this challenging economic period, Japanese carmakers sought to
bypass traditional intermediary partners in their supply chains and directly access upstream parts manufacturers with
lower margins. The firms that pursued this strategy were rewarded with higher revenue. The novel network analytic
method specifically discerns that the disintermediation and the diversification of supply chains precede firms’
success in sales (rather than vice versa). The results suggest a potential challenge for the traditional keiretsu
structure among Japanese automotive manufacturers in the new global economic environment.

Research paper thumbnail of The Strength of Long Ties and the Weakness of Strong Ties: Knowledge Diffusion through Supply Chain Networks

This paper examines the effect of the structure of supply chain networks on productivity and inno... more This paper examines the effect of the structure of supply chain networks on productivity and innovation capability through knowledge diffusion, using large firm-level panel data for Japan. We find that ties with distant suppliers improve productivity, as measured by sales per worker, possibly attributed to intermediates from distant firms embodying more diversified knowledge than from neighboring firms. Ties with neighboring clients also improve productivity, which may be a result of diffusion of disembodied knowledge from neighboring clients being more effective than from distant clients. By contrast, ties with distant suppliers and clients improve innovative capability, as measured by the number of patent applications, suggesting the importance of a diversity of knowledge from distant firms for innovation. In addition, the density of a firm's ego network, which is measured by how densely its supply chain partners transact with each other, is found to have a negative effect on productivity and innovative capability, implying knowledge redundancy in dense networks. Overall, our results emphasize the importance of diversified partners in knowledge diffusion through supply chain networks.

TODO Yasuyuki
RIETI and Waseda University
Petr MATOUS
The University of Tokyo
INOUE Hiroyasu
Osaka Sangyo University

Research paper thumbnail of Problem-solving discourse on an international construction site: Patterns and practices

Highlights 1) We analyse problem-solving communication in an international construction project. ... more Highlights

  1. We analyse problem-solving communication in an international construction project.
  2. Willingness to communicate, professional and contractual knowledge are essential.
  3. Inadequate relationship-building may constrain the opportunities for problem-solving.

Abstract
This paper analyses the discursive realisation of on-site problem-solving encounters in a large international construction project in Hong Kong. Specifically, the analyses focus on professional English as a lingua franca interactions between the engineers from Japan who are full-time employees of the company heading the joint venture, and contracted Hong-Kongese foremen and engineers. A combination of methods and several data sources are used to interpret the interlocutors' communications and relationships, and show how certain items, for instance problem, issue and if, as well as evaluative items such as metaphors and idioms, index discursive practices and patterns during problem solving. These data sources include fully transcribed spoken interactions, interviews with the participants and expert informants, and researcher field notes. The results shed light on the key intertextual role the contract plays in the context of construction industry problem solving, the various bodies that are involved in addressing complex problems, and the importance of the foreman and on-site engineer relationship.

Research paper thumbnail of 農業普及員による直接的技術移転とソーシャルラーニングを介した間接的技術移転 -エチオピアの農村を事例として-

国際開発研究、第23巻第1号, 2014

石川達也、Petr Matous、石渡文子、戸堂康之 (2014) 農業普及員による直接的技術移転とソーシャルラーニングを介した間接的技術移転 -エチオピアの農村を事例として, 国際開発研究、... more 石川達也、Petr Matous、石渡文子、戸堂康之 (2014) 農業普及員による直接的技術移転とソーシャルラーニングを介した間接的技術移転 -エチオピアの農村を事例として, 国際開発研究、第23巻第1号, 175-188.

Research paper thumbnail of The Effects of Endogenous Interdependencies on Trade Network Formation across Space among Major Japanese Firms; 内生的相互依存関係が日本の大企業の取引ネットワークの形成に及ぼす効果

The network structures of interfirm interactions have been linked previously to disaster resilien... more The network structures of interfirm interactions have been linked previously to disaster resilience. However, the dynamic drivers of interfirm network structures rarely have been explored in the literature. This paper uses stochastic actor-oriented modeling to examine how networks of economic interactions among the 500 largest Japanese companies were created and maintained between 2010 and 2011, i.e., before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake. Controlling for geographical distance between firms' headquarters and for firm size, we find that firms preferred trading partners that generally were popular among other firms, had clients in common with them, and also had bought some products or services from them, and that firms avoided firms with connections to independent suppliers in other cliques. These tendencies have potential implications for disaster resilience and the revival of the Japanese economy.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Business Networks on Firm Growth in a Cluster of Microenterprises: Evidence from rural Ethiopia

Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture... more Poverty reduction in rural Africa necessitates diversification of income sources from agriculture to nonfarm activities. Clustering of micro-enterprises in rural areas can promote nonfarm income. This study examines the determinants of growth in sales and skill levels of microenterprises in a tailor cluster in rural Ethiopia, focusing on the role of business networks. We collected panel data, including measures of business networks through procurement, outsourcing, and financing, for three years from 136 firms, the population in the "survival" cluster. The results show that when firms are closer to the center of business networks, i.e., firms are characterized by a higher centrality measure, they are more likely to increase sales. However, although network centrality is also associated with a higher level of tailoring skills, the skill level itself has no significant effect on sales. The finding implies that consumers in the area are not concerned much about the quality of products. Therefore, while expanding business networks can promote sales and skill levels, incentives to upgrade skills are minimal.

Research paper thumbnail of Emergence of multiplex mobile phone communication networks across rural areas: An Ethiopian experiment

Network Science, 2014

Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the p... more Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe, leading to the question: “What is the potential of the new communication technologies for increasing individuals’ access to information and diffusion of attitudes and practices across rural areas of developing countries?” We have donated phones to 234 farmers selected by stratified random sampling in an agrarian region of Ethiopia and have tracked their main communication partners for six months. The panel data and qualitative interviews indicated that the phones were not typically used to expand the existing constrained social networks or to gain information from new sources but to call alters within the original networks and individuals introduced through the experiment. Stochastic actor-based network models clarified that although agricultural information-seeking and casual calling are intertwined, the mechanisms underlying the evolution of instrumental and expressive communication networks are distinct. Acquaintances living beyond comfortable walking distances and individuals whom others call became preferred for information-seeking calls. These tendencies enable faster information exchange within the original social network and support the creation of information hubs that might potentially facilitate more efficient information diffusion over long distances in the future. In contrast, the importance of geographical communities strongly prevails in casual phone conversations. Physically proximate community members who tend to be met frequently were preferred for sentiment-sharing calls. Preferential attachment was not evident for this type of communication. As a result, the network of these expressive calls was highly localized and fragmented, making it unlikely for personal feelings to diffuse across wide geographical areas through the new phone networks.

Research paper thumbnail of 絆が災害に対して強靭な企業をつくる-東日本大震災からの教訓-

Research paper thumbnail of How Do Supply Chain Networks Affect the Resilience of  Firms to Natural Disasters? Evidence from the Great East Japan Earthquake

This paper uses firm-level data to examine how supply chain networks affected the recovery of fir... more This paper uses firm-level data to examine how supply chain networks affected the recovery of firms from the Great East Japan Earthquake. Extensive supply chains can negatively affect recovery through higher vulnerability to network disruption and positively through support from trading partners, easier search for new partners, and general benefits of agglomeration. Our results indicate that networks with firms outside of the impacted area contributed to the earlier resumption of production, whereas networks within the region contributed to sales recovery in the medium term. The results suggest that the positive effects of supply chains typically exceed the negative effects.

Research paper thumbnail of The making and unmaking of community-based water  supplies in Manila

Development in Practice (accepted, forthcoming)

"This article tracks the rise and fall of a community-based water supply program in Manila, pro... more "This article tracks the rise and fall of a community-based water supply program in Manila,
providing important insights into the issues of community participatory approaches to service
provision, as well as the privatization of basic services and public goods. The Manila Water
Corporation, a private, for-profit company, developed an innovative program to provide water
to slum communities through bulk connections, deploying the discourse of ‘public
participation’ to effectively transfer responsibility for distribution and collection of payments
to local water users’ organizations. The program achieved considerable success, and also
empowered local organizations or (more often) individuals, who used some of their increased
legitimacy, influence and income to mobilize for squatters’ rights, challenging landlords and
local governments. After an initial period, the company changed its policy and shifted instead
to a program that provides individual connections to slum households, supported by subsidies
from the government and international aid agencies. This article chronicles and analyses the
origins, growth, controversies and eventual decline of community-based water supply in
Manila’s slums. The article concludes with suggestions on how community-based organizations
can provide water supply services effectively and equitably, discussing as well the capacitybuilding and social transformation benefits of such an approach. "

Research paper thumbnail of Exploring critical incidents in international construction projects

By Daniel Haussner, Yu Maemura, Petr Matous Presentation at CIVIL ENGINEERING CONFERENCE IN THE ... more By Daniel Haussner, Yu Maemura, Petr Matous

Presentation at CIVIL ENGINEERING CONFERENCE IN THE ASIAN REGION CECAR 7
WAIKIKI, OAHU, HAWAII | AUGUST 30 - SEPTEMBER 2, 2016

Research paper thumbnail of Modelling the resilience and disruption propagation in business networks at the firm level: Introduction of previous research and future plans

Petr Matous Philippa Pattison Ian Wilkinson Pascal Perez Rob Axtell Yasuyuki Todo Peng Wang Nati... more Petr Matous
Philippa Pattison
Ian Wilkinson
Pascal Perez
Rob Axtell
Yasuyuki Todo
Peng Wang

National economies comprise complex networks of firms exchanging material and non-material resources via physical infrastructure, which can be modelled by agent-based models (ABMs). The network structure of interfirm interactions effects how shocks and fluctuations in one part propagate, disrupt behaviour and affect aggregate outcomes and performance. The critical importance of the structure and behaviour of these networks is being increasingly recognised but, to date, sufficiently realistic models have not been developed of these highly complex systems, due to lack of data (complete interfirm production network data for an entire economy are available only in Japan) and the ability to adequately model the firms’ behaviour. A correct specification of interaction network topologies is of crucial importance in ABM but previous models have been operated mainly on theoretically stylized networks such as lattices, random networks, or generic small-world and scale-free networks. ABMs have been mainly used to illustrate theoretical principles rather than being explicitly calibrated against statistical data from real-world networks.
Exponential Random Graph Models (ERGMs) support statistical inference regarding the processes underlying observed network structures, efficiently capturing complex network “motifs”, which can represent, for example, the tendencies to form cliques in trade networks or utilizing intermediaries who broker between diverse network cliques. Moreover, multi-level ERGMs, introduced by Wang et al (2013), can be used to explore complex interactions between supply networks and underlying physical infrastructure networks. Importantly, ERGM coefficients can be obtained from adequately sampled network data.
This project develops ABM embedded in empirically estimated multi-level network structures governed by interaction rules identified in Australian business networks. The model is developed by (1) collecting snowball samples of supply networks in diverse regions of Australia and integrating them with underlying physical infrastructure network data; (2) estimating the micro structure of these multilevel network fragments by ERGMs; (3) setting up a 2 million-agent ABM with contact structures probabilistically inferred in the previous step; (4) validating and calibrating the process on the existing data of the entire production network in Japan. Such model can simulate fine-grained non-linear diffusion processes and their pathways, which could not be accomplished in the ERGM framework alone. The aim of model is to be used by policymakers and firms to examine the critical infrastructure for the resilience of the system, the effects of different types of shocks on the system, and to develop strategies to deal with them in effective ways.

Research paper thumbnail of Black Ships for the Japanese Construction Industry

Research paper thumbnail of 日本建設業界にとっての黒船

Japan Society of Civil Engineers, International Activities Center, No. 23

Research paper thumbnail of Special lecture: The useful social network? How visualization can empower users as well as researchers

Social networks have long been associated with visualization. Lin Freeman refers to it as one of ... more Social networks have long been associated with visualization. Lin Freeman refers to it as one of the key pillars of social network analysis and familiar sociograms are a regular part of presentations and papers. However, many of these diagrams remain confusing artifacts and merely show basic facts rather than deep insights. They are also much easier for experts to read than everyday people. This is changing with the advent of browser-based toolkits and APIs for social media. Now, it is possible to visualize and interact with networks that are personally meaningful. This presentation will give an overview of the history, design and uses of interactive and participant-driven networks as well as introduce "collegeconnect.us", a new website created by the author to make personal networks interactive and meaningful. I will discuss some of the key decisions about layout, coloring, design and interactivity that emerge from extensive pre-tests and a history of research in this field. I will also give an overview of social media network capture from basics to programming approaches, focusing on Facebook and Twitter.

Research paper thumbnail of ZAŽÍT MĚSTO JINAK? - SLUMY TŘETÍHO SVĚTA

Research paper thumbnail of Komunikační sítě a nové technologie v rozvojovém světě

http://www.ikaros.cz/komunikacni-site-a-nove-technologie-v-rozvojovem-svete

Research paper thumbnail of Special Guest Seminar: Prof. Bonnie Erickson "SOCIAL CAPITAL FOR ETHNIC MINORITIES"

Research paper thumbnail of Emergence of mobile phone communication networks in a rural setting: An Ethiopian experiment

Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe and our question is how this affects loc... more Mobile phones are spreading to remote areas of the globe and our question is how this affects local patterns of communication?

The relevance of new communication technology is difficult to gauge under natural conditions because of a self-selection bias in adoption. Another challenge is to disentangle homophily from network contagion in actors’ communication behavior.

Our research project tackles these obstacles by a randomized experimental approach combined with a panel survey.

We have donated phones to 234 farmers selected by stratified random sampling in a rural region of Ethiopia and have been eliciting their communication patterns. So far we have collected and analyzed data from five monthly periods.

The new phone owners started calling a small number of influential individuals but this type of usage dropped in the second month and the indegree distribution has been flattening.

Using simulation investigation network analysis (SIENA) techniques, preliminary evidence suggests that the drivers of the communication network dynamics are geographical proximity, reciprocity, transitivity, educational and religious homophily, and occupational heterophily.

The experiment participants prefer to call to those who live closer and belong to the same administrative unit, those who call them, those who call more overall, and those whom their calling partners call. Farmers phone to external experts and business owners phone to farmers.

Overall, the local inhabitants, particularly the more educated ones, are reluctant to establish new communication ties, nevertheless it occasionally happens, which becomes a base for reciprocity and transitivity mechanisms and gradual network expansion.

Research paper thumbnail of Sociální sítě a rozvoj infrastruktury v Asii a Africe

http://www.ikaros.cz/komunikacni-site-a-nove-technologie-v-rozvojovem-svete Zatímco stavební t... more http://www.ikaros.cz/komunikacni-site-a-nove-technologie-v-rozvojovem-svete

Zatímco stavební trhy v ekonomicky rozvinutých zemích se smršťují, stavební firmy se snaží rozšířit své
aktivity v rozvojových oblastech, ve kterých poptávka roste. Stavební a technologické projekty v těchto zemích
ale nebyly vždy úspěšné a často měly nepředvídané dopady na místní společnosti. Po krátkém uvedení, jak
Stavební fakulta Tokijské university reagovala na tuto situaci zavedením společenských věd do výuky a
výzkumu, tato přednáška představí několik příkladů ze současných projektů.

Obyvatelé rozvojových oblastí s neefektivními institucemi a chybějící infrastrukturou musí
v každodenním životě spoléhat na neoficiální mezilidské vztahy, aby se postarali o své základní potřeby,
například i pro to, aby sehnali pitnou vodu. Struktury těchto mezilidských spojení mohou být formalizovány
jako sociální sítě a kvantitativně studovány. První část této přednášky bude o rozvoji vodovodních sítí ve
filipínských slumech a takzvaném sociálním kapitálu. V této přednášce bude vysvětleno, jak lze s použitím
teorie sociálních sítí rigorózně měřit tento koncept a jaké to má implikace pro rozvod vody v chudých
oblastech. V druhé části přednášky bude představena metodologie a předběžné výsledky současného
sociálního experimentu v Etiopii o tom, jaký má infrastruktura a nové technologie vliv na dynamiku sociálních
sítí, šíření informací a chovaní, a následně přijetí dalších nových technologií mezi obyvateli.

Research paper thumbnail of Effects of Geography and Social Networks on Diffusion and Adoption of Agricultural Technology: Evidence from Rural Ethiopia

This study examines determinants of adoption of agricultural technologies including conservation ... more This study examines determinants of adoption of agricultural technologies including conservation tillage and compost/manure in Ethiopia, paying special attention to the role of geography and social networks. We distinguish between social networks with and without frequent meeting and between general networks with relatives and friends and specific networks with agricultural extension agents. In addition, we distinguish between knowing and adopting a particular technology and examine the effect of each type of social network on diffusion and adoption of technologies. We find that geography affects formation of social networks and further that social networks affect diffusion and
adoption of technologies, depending on the type of network. In particular, networks based on frequent meeting promote knowledge diffusion but does not necessarily promote adoption of new technologies. In stark contrast, networks without frequent meeting are found to promote adoption. These contrasting results imply that while farmers who know technologies require some kind of reinforcement through social networks for adoption, the reinforcement is not generated from frequent meeting.

Research paper thumbnail of NHK BS-1 不況を生き抜け!

Research paper thumbnail of 持つべきものは友 ―水へのアクセスと人間関係 (Access to water and personal relationships)

持つべきものは友 ―水へのアクセスと人間関係 Petr Matous 東京大学公開講座 安田講堂 2009年10月17日 ご来客の皆様、こんにちは!ただいまご紹介に預かりました、ペトゥル・マト... more 持つべきものは友 ―水へのアクセスと人間関係
Petr Matous
東京大学公開講座
安田講堂
2009年10月17日

ご来客の皆様、こんにちは!ただいまご紹介に預かりました、ペトゥル・マトゥシュと申します。本日こうして、この由緒正しき安田講堂にて、素晴らしいご来客の皆様の前で、一人の若いヨーロッパ人研究者が、アジアとアフリカのスラムにおける水についてお話をする。なぜ私がこのような幸運な機会に恵まれたかをご説明するところから、本日の講演を始めさせていただきたいと思います。
私は、今からちょうど7年前、応用力学を勉強するためにチェコ共和国から来日しました。そして、日本での研究生活に励む中で、日本政府が支援するフィリピンのマニラにおける水道民営化に関する研究に携わる機会に恵まれました。もとの専門とは少し異なる分野でしたが、とても楽観的な性格の私は、ここに残り、今日まで修練してきました。
研究を続ける中で、私はinformal settingの水道システムの中で、ある概念がとても大きな力を発揮しているということに気付きました。それが、本日のテーマでもあります、「ソーシャル・ネットワーク」、日本語で言えば「社会ネットワーク」です。ソーシャル・ネットワークは、本当に大きな役割を担っており、本日お話する内容の大部分が、このソーシャル・ネットワークについてです。
このように、日本に来て、専門が変わり、手探りで始めたソーシャル・ネットワークの研究でしたが、今では研究の対象範囲も広がり、このソーシャル・ネットワーク理論を用いて様々なインフラストラクチャーへの住民のアクセスを扱うようになりました。例えば携帯電話。近年のグローバル化の影響で、世界中の人々が持つようになっています。そして特に私が驚いたのは、水道はなくても携帯電話は持っているという人が数多くいるということです。また、他にはエチオピアの農民への新技術の導入や、日本国内の限界集落での基礎的サービスの研究設計にも関わっています。
このように様々な分野に関わってきましたが、やはり最も注目すべきは水です。水は、世界中で興った文明にとって、特別な宗教的、文化的、そして精神的な意味を持っています。きっと皆様も、昨今の世界の水問題について、テレビや新聞で聞かれたことがあると思います。気候変動、砂漠化、汚染された水で命を落とす子供達、そして水紛争。最近の国際世論調査で、水問題はグローバルな問題の中でも最も高い優先順位になっています。このような状況を見ていると、まるで世界中の水資源がいずれなくなってしまうかのような強い懸念が世界中にあります。
しかし、実際には地球上にある水の総量は一定なのです。もちろん、分子レベルで水分子H2Oが壊れることも稀にありますし、宇宙から水が飛来してくることもありますが、この数年で見れば水は全体的に 増えたり減ったりしないのです。例えば飲水や、灌漑、洗濯などに水を使っても、その水は破壊されるわけではないのです。使う分は、生産される。問題は、いかにしてこの水資源を管理、効率的に、必要としている人々に安価に配分するか、そしてどのように再利用するかということなのです。
どうすれば、皆が安心な水を得られるシステムを設計し、管理できるのでしょうか。その方法は、地理的な環境によって大きく異なります。特に、都市と農村部での違いは大きいです。今日のお話は、特に都市に住む貧困層が水道にアクセスする上での課題についてご説明し、そして「コミュニティ・アプローチ」と呼ばれる解決策をご紹介します。
人々が水へのアクセスを得る上でソーシャル・ネットワークがどのような役割を果たすのか。そして、これらの貧しい国の水資源について知ることが、東京の日常生活について考える上でどのような意味を持つのか。今日のお話が終わった頃には皆さんにこれらの点について、私の考えをしっかりとお伝えできていたら嬉しく思います。
本日のお話の中では、この画面にあります三角形の図を使って、水問題の重要な点をご説明します。一般的に、水資源が、環境的、社会的、そして経済的に持続可能であるためには、いくつかの仕組みが正常に機能する必要があります。これらの仕組みは、いくつかの細かいタスク、つまりいくつかの明確な作業で構成されていて、どのような作業が必要であるかは、その地域の独自の特性によります。

私がお話する内容は、都市の中でも最も忘れ去られている地域に関するものです。このような、行政サービスが乏しい地域を、スラムと言います。国連の統計によると、世界の人口の三分の一にも上る約10億人が、スラムに暮らしています。そしてこの数字は、農村から都市への移住が進む中で、どんどん増えているのです。このように農村から都市へと移住するペースが最も早いのが、サハラ砂漠以南のアフリカです。これらの地域では既に都市に住む人々はスラムで暮らしているのです。例えば、エチオピアの首都でありますAddis Ababaの実に70%がスラムで構成されています。他方、現在の日本には、スラムはありません。私が住んでいた学生寮は、スラムに限りなく近いほどに古かったですが、それでも東京の全域で、水道や基本的なインフラは整備されています。
誰もが、必要な分だけの水を、安価に得ることができる。そして人々が支払う水道代で、水道局の費用をまかなうことができます。日本でもホームレス人口が増えたり、ネットカフェ難民が社会問題になったりしていますが、それでも、最も貧しい日本人でも、水へのアクセスがなくて苦しんでいる人はいません。
このように、東京のシステムは東京では見事に機能していますが、先ほど申し上げましたエチオピアのAddis Ababaのようなところでは全く同じようには機能しません。国連の調査によると、発展途上国の都市が都市インフラの整備に使える財源は、先進国と比べて実に30分の1しかありません。
私が、アジアの水道事業者と話をすると、その事業者が官であるか、民であるかに関係なく、みんなが、水資源と財源が足りないから、スラムに水を提供することは難しいと言います。中には、貧困層から水道代を取ることはできないと考えているけど、無料で提供することもできないというジレンマに悩む事業者もいます。あるいは、スラムに水道を提供しても、水道管を壊されたり、中古の金物として売り飛ばしたりしてしまうだけだと考える人もいます。
また、それ以前に、スラム住民は土地の権利を持っていないため、そもそも水道事業者が水道を提供することはできない場合もありますし、水道事業者の作業員も、治安などを理由にこれらの地域に入りたがらないこともあります。このように、都市の貧困層は清潔で安全な水へのアクセスが難しいため、女性や子供が水を媒介とする伝染病で苦しむこともあります。しかし、彼らは決して諦めません。合法的に水を得る方法がないなら、他の方法で生きていこうとするのです。
一つの方法は、水を法外な価格で売る業者から買うということです。あるいは、別の方法は、水道システムに違法に接続し、水を盗む方法です。しかし、こうして水道管を切って非合法な接続を作ることは、水道システムの効率性と安全性を大きく損ねます。アジア開発銀行の調査によれば、水道システムを通る水の実に半分が失われることも珍しくないのです。このような状況は、コロンボ、デリーやジャカルタで実際に確認されており、水道事業者の経済的な持続性を大きく損ねることになります。また、財源の不足は職員の低い給与の原因になっており、低い給与は不正を引き起こし、時には水道業者の職員自身が水を盗んで違法に売っている事例もあると言います。
このような状況の中で一部の水道業者は、スラムを避けてきたことがかえって長期的には組織の存続や、水資源の持続性を損ねていることに気がつき始めています。しかし、必要となる膨大な量の水や、潜在的なリスクを考えると、なかなかスラムに水道を提供するという一歩を踏み出せずにいるのです。このように、サービスを提供できる範囲を狭め、そして水道の効率性を損ねてしまっている状況を打破するため、新たなアプローチを試している都市もあります。インド西部の都市でありますアーメダーバードもそのような都市の例です。アーメダーバードでは、スラム住民から水道代を回収することをあえてせず、水道使用量のメーターすらついていない無料の水道を提供したのです。こうすることによって、水道代を払えなくて水にアクセスできない人はいなくなります。しかしこの方法にも欠点はあります。

このサービスを導入してから、スラムの人々は水道を止めなくなったのです。それどころか、とても驚いたことに水道を止める蛇口がそもそもついていない場所もありました。その地域に住む人々は水をずっと出しっぱなしにしていたのですが、さすがにこの無駄遣いのため、都市のほとんどで水は夜中の二時間しか使えなくなってしまったのです。しかし、このように水道が使われない時間が長いと、水の圧力が弱いため、汚染物質が入り込みやすくなります。しかし、いまさらこのような状況を悔やんでも、無料サービスというのは一度提供されてしまったら、実用的にも、政治的にも、有料にはできないものなのです。
スラムで持続可能な水システムを実現するためには、東京のような発展した都市では必要ではないような特別な作業が必要になることもあります。全体的に、民間か公共かによらず、水道事業者はスラムが持つ独自の課題を解決し、人々に水へのアクセスを与えることはできずにおりました。
このように都市の貧困層が物質的にも社会的にも困難な状況にある中、インフラ整備につきましては「コミュニティ・アプローチ」という新たな方法論が広く認められるようになって参りました。現在では、「参加型」、「ボトムアップ」、「コミュニティ」や「小規模水道事業者」など、多様な概念がよく使われます。ここで言います「コミュニティ」という言葉は、一般的にとてもロマンチックな用法で使われます。つまり、同じスラムの住民には対立もなく、常にフレンドリーで、集団的な幸福のためにはいかなる協力も惜しまないような使われ方がしばしば見られるのです。貧しい人々が、自分たちの生活環境を改善する活動に参加することは、貧しい人々の権利です。言い換えれば、「貧しい人が自分自身を助けることを、助ける」ことが重要なのです。これを水資源について言えば、コミュニティに一括で水資源が与えられ、コミュニティの人々がこれを自分たちで分配します。 このような方法は、貧しいコミュニティの人々が、生活必需品である水を管理する権限を与えられることによってある種の力を得るという意味で「エンパワーメント」と呼ばれることもあります。それと同時に、権限をコミュニティ自身に移すことは予算が乏しい途上国では財政的にも重要なことです。また、途上国の水道業者の視点から見ればこれは水道を引くことなくまとまった量の水を貧しい人々に売る効率的な方法でもあります。
私がこの大学の学生達と共に携わったアジア開発銀行のコンサルティング・プロジェクトでは、中央集権的な水道事業者よりも、地域に根ざした組織の方が、次のような利点があるということが分かりました。まず、社会的、地理的な知識と経験が豊富であること。次に、常にその地域の中にすでにいるということ。そして、時間の機会費用が小さいこと、つまりその組織が水道事業に関わることこそが、その組織がほかのことに関わるよりも地域のためになるということです。
このような特徴があるから、これらの「コミュニティ・ベース組織」は地域の住民とのコミュニケーションでもより良い結果を残しています。必要な場合には必要なプレッシャーをかけ、水道に関わる作業が効率的に行われるように管理をするのです。また、中央集権的な水道局などと違って、政府によって監視されていないため、滞納者に対してもより厳しく対処することができます。よって、水を違法に盗んでいくいわば「水泥棒」による被害を抑えて効率的に水を届けることができるのです。これは、中央集権的な水道事業主が失敗をする最も大きな理由であり、このようなコミュニティ・ベース組織の活用が急速に広まっているのもうなずけるのです。
しかし、このような方法が浸透した今も、コミュニティの中でどのような仕組みが働いているのかはあまり知られていませんでした。だからこそ私はこの七年間の中でフィリピンを中心にインド、ベトナム、ケニアやエチオピアでコミュニティ・ベース組織が成功しているメカニズムを研究してきたのです。
これらの調査で私は、コミュニティ・ベース・プロジェクトで大きな利益を得るスラム住民に出会いました。中には、子供を大学に通わせるほどのお金を得ている人もいました。しかし一方で、コミュニティのメンバーであるはずなのに、生活に必要な量の水にもあり付けない人もいたのです。
Addis Ababaでは、地元のNGOから無料の水を得ているいくつかの家族に出会いましたが、中には娘が毎朝、学校に行かずに遠くまで水を取りにいかなくてはならない事例もありました。ケニアのナイロビでは、水道を通す経路が決まった後、その経路の上に住む家族の家を壊してしまっていましたが、家を壊された家族に対しては何の補償もありませんでした。
私は資本主義に反対しているわけではなく、自由競争の下でより優れていることが市場獲得と利益につながっていいと思いますが、先ほどお話したような事例は決して競争市場ではありません。私は、一部の権力者が水という生活必需品を完全に掌握して、独占することによって残りの人々がツケを払わなくてはならないようなこの状況に懸念を感じました。
これは、富めるものがもっと富み、貧しい人がもっと貧しくなるような問題ではありません。水を独占した人々は必ずしもコミュニティで最も裕福な人であるとは限らず、地域で食べ物を売り歩いていた女性や、あるいは定職につくことができなかった人々であることも珍しくなかったのです。これらの人々は、例えば次のような特徴のいくつかを備えています。水行政を扱う役人が遠い親戚にいたり、初期投資が必要な場合にそれを貸してくれる知り合いがいたり、地元の教会やモスクで活発に活動していたり、問題があった時に他受けてくれる友人がいたり、地元の祭りや葬式に頻繁に参加していたり、地元NGOのスタッフの親密な関係にあったり、開発に関わる用語について知識が豊富だったり。
同様に、コミュニティ・ベース・プロジェクトで損をする人々は必ずしも最も貧しい人たちではありません。募集期間が終わってしまうまでプロジェクトのことを知らなかったり、初期費用を貸してくれる友人が見つからなかったり、水道が健康や経済状況にもたらす長期的なメリットを理解できなかったり、あるいは単純に水道システムを使わせてもらうことができなかったり。これらの人々は社会から隔離されたところにいて、友人も少ない人が多いのです。
確かに、地元に根ざした業者や、あるいは住民が管理した方が、部外者が水を管理するよりも効率的であることが多いと思います。しかし、様々な都市のスラムで話を聞いてきた印象から申し上げますと、これらのコミュニティ・ベース・システムが必ずしもコミュニティを作っていない事例も数多く見受けられます。むしろ、より友達が多く、より広く強い社会ネットワークを持つ一部の住民が、情報や資金へのアクセスの良さからコミュニティ・ベース・システムをうまく利用して他の人々を搾取していることさえ珍しくありません。
このような事態を打開する方法を考えるためには、先ほど申し上げたような印象を客観的に再確認し、原因を特定する必要があります。情報へのアクセス、ローンへのアクセス、あるいは行政的な特権は、研究対象として抽象的過ぎると思われるかもしれませんが、十分、研究に値する対象であるということが分かってきました。コミュニティで利益を得た人々の強みは、個々人が持つ個人的なネットワークの中に埋め込まれたものです。人々は、他の人々との互恵的な環境を作り、ネットワークを徐々に、構築することによってこれらの資源を活用できるのです。このような人間関係の構築は意図的というよりは、日々の生活の副産物として得られるものなのです。
経済学的に言うと、これらの人々は自分たちの将来の効用のために、社会ネットワークの中で資源を作れるよう投資をしているのです。このような言い方をすると功利主義的で楽観主義的なように聞こえますが、経済学の定義は往々にしてこのようなものが多いのです。
そしてそういう意味において、このような社会的な資源は、一種の資本であると考えることができます。フランスの著名な社会学者であるピエール・ブルデューは、このように社会構造の中に埋もれた資源のことを、「ソーシャルキャピタル」と名づけました。このように「ソーシャルキャピタル」という言葉が生まれたのは西ヨーロッパですが、途上国のスラムにおいても大きな意義を持っています。このような恵まれない地域、都市計画でいう「胴枯れ地帯」のような場所では、様々な組織や法制度が十分に機能しておらず、情報にアクセスしたり、借り入れができる組織にアクセスできることこそ、日々の厳しい生活の中でとても重要なのです。
皆様の中には、ソーシャルキャピタルの異なる定義を聞いたことがある方もいらっしゃるかもしれません。例えば日本語には「社会資本」という言葉があり、ソーシャルキャピタルを直訳すると「社会資本」になってしまいますが、この日本語はまったく異なる概念を意味するものなので、混乱を避けるために本日は英語のまま、「ソーシャルキャピタル」という言葉を使わせていただきます。
私の目的のひとつは、このソーシャルキャピタルと、人々が水にアクセスできる度合いの関係を知ることでした。すると、最も根本的な疑問にぶつかるのです。つまり、ソーシャルキャピタルとはどうやって測るのか、ということです。
デューク大学で社会学を研究するナン・リン教授によれば、職業こそ、ある人の社会における地位と資源へのアクセスを最も如実にあらわすものです。異なる職業についている人々は、異なる資源、例えば異なる情報へのアクセスを持っており、これらの資源が有効であるシチュエーションも異なります。よって、異なる職種の人々とのつながりがあるということはより多くのソーシャルキャピタルを持っていることの指標になり得るのです。
私は、シカゴ大学のドナルド・トライマン名誉教授が発見した、古今東西、津々浦々の職業の分類方法を用いて、それをもとにソーシャルキャピタルを測るための職業リストを作成しました。そして、調査したサンプルを分析することによって、信頼性のある指標化手法を作ることができました。
その中で対象とした九つの職業群を今からご説明します。決して難しいものではなく、例えば、このスケールの場合は、 九つのうち七つのポジションに知り合いがいれば、ソーシャルキャピタル点数は7点になるということです。お配りした資料には、東京大学のイケダ・ケンイチ教授が、日本におけるソーシャルキャピタル測定のために用いた職業のリストがあります。もしご興味があればぜひ後ほど、休み時間などに、皆様ご自身がどの職業の方をどれぐらい知っているかを振り返って、ソーシャルキャピタル点数を数えてみて下さい。
この調査で私達は、フィリピン共和国の首都でありますメトロマニラのスラム地域において、12のコミュニティ・ベース水システムを対象としました。
正直に申しますと、私とチームのアシスタント達は当初、調査地の治安についてとても心配しておりました。そんな心配をする私達に追い討ちをかけるかのように、調査を開始する前日に調査地の近くで現地のフィリピン人が、現地組織に雇われた暗殺者によって殺されていたのです。私がこの話で最も驚いたのは、この暗殺者が受け取る報酬よりも、水道へのアクセスを得るための初期費用の方が高いということでした。
治安の心配を抱えながらも、私達は地元の方々の信頼を得るために、スラム地域初日から長い時間を過ごしました。すると、徐々に地域の方々が私達を食事に招いて下さり、私達は地域の子供達と遊ぶようになり、一人の女の子は私の絵まで描いてくれました。当時の私は神が長く、外見がイエス・キリストにとても似ていたため、カトリックのフィリピン人社会ではこのことが大いに役立ったように思います。次第に私達は地域の方々とお酒を飲んだりカラオケをしたりするようになり、今でも連絡を取り合っています。
しかし、つい先週の台風で集落が流されてしまったことを彼らから聞き、無事であったことにほっとしながらも、悲しい気持ちは隠せません。
話を戻しますと、私達はこのフィリピンでの調査の中で、都市のこの地域におけるコミュニティ・ベース水システムの典型的な例を知ることができました。
まず、誰かが水道局から水を一括で購入し、徐々にコミュニティの内部でこれを分配するネットワークを構築し、初期費用を徴収します。住民の中にはこの水を購入せず、代わりにバケツで水を買う人もいます。このことはこの図に示している通りです。
集めた情報から私は、水システムの費用と、一般的な家庭の収入を概算することができました。この図は、最初の2年のネット・プレゼント・バリュー、つまり日本語言えば正味現在価値を三つのグループの消費者について比較したものです。正味現在価値の割引率は10%で、使用する水の量は全てのグループで等しく月に40平方メートルとしました。
より簡潔に言い換えますと、これこそ、三つのグループが2年間で支払う大体の金額なのです。そしてこれが意味することは、コミュニティ・ベース・システムを管理する者は利益を得る一方、他の住民は比較的に高い費用を支払い、更にまったく水へのアクセスがない人は最も高い費用を払っているということです。
そしてこの研究の最も重要な問いをいま一度考えます。この傾向は、人々のソーシャルキャピタルと関係しているのでしょうか。そうです、皆様がもうお察しの通り、関係性があることはかなり確からしいのです。
この定量的な測定によって、コミュニティ・ベース・プロジェクトの、言わば勝者と敗者には明らかな違いがあります。最も豊富なソーシャルキャピタルを持つ人々が水資源を支配し、最もソーシャルキャピタルが貧しい人々は良いアクセスを得られず、より高い料金を払うことになるのです。
このような状況を踏まえますと、「コミュニティ」というものは手放しに賞賛されるべきものではないということが分かりますし、これは他の水事業者にとっても同じことが言えるのです。これらのコミュニティで水資源を牛耳る人々は、これらのコミュニティ・ベース水資源を管理する上で規制もなく、登録もなく、モニタリングの義務もないのです。
しかし、水道料金の引き下げを強要することは必ずしも解決策になりません。これらの水道管理者はソーシャルキャピタルについては裕福ですが、金銭的には困窮していることが少なくありません。よって、投資に対して十分なリターンを得るためには、比較的高い水道料金を設定して、システムの故障や不正利用による損失に備える必要があるのです。
特にスラムのように技術力が乏しい場合は、このようなことが頻繁に起こります。
また、正規のローンを組むことができない彼らは、高利貸しの高い金利にも苦しめられています。全体で言いますと、コミュニティの技術的、マネジメント的、そして経済的なキャパシティは、正式な水道局と比較して弱いのです。だからこそ、よりソーシャルキャピタルが豊富な人々が、そうでない人々を搾取することによって、システムが機能しているのです。よって、内部における格差に目をつぶれば、外部から見たこのシステムは十分正常に機能していると言えます。
それでは、私が理想的であると考える結論を申し上げます。理想的には、コミュニティや、地元の小規模水道事業者が、中央集権的な水道局などが失敗する作業、例えばいわゆるフリーライダーと呼ばれる不払い世帯などを管理し、取り締まるべきです。その上で、サービスの正当性など、小さな組織では十分ではない点について、水道局が支援をしていけばいいのです。
いくつかの予測によると、次の15年間で世界には8つの新たなメガシティー、つまり100万人都市が誕生します。そしてこれら8つの都市のうち実に7つが、アジアおよびサブサハラアフリカにあるのです。
しかし、都市の成長が最も多く起こるのは、これらのメガシティーの近くに生まれる少し小さな都市です。そしてこれらの都市には、十分なインフラがありません。アジアの経済成長は水の需要を増やしますが、同時に都市の改善と水資源の開発への投資も増大させます。
しかし、サブサハラアフリカの展望はアジアほど明るくありません。専門家は、サハラ砂漠以南に位置するこれらの国々では農村の貧困がより多くの人々を都市のスラムに追いやると予測しています。また、地域のエリートと、様々な社会的な機会に恵まれない貧しい人々の間の格差も広がっています。更に、これらの地域は気候変動の悪影響を最初に被る地域であると言われています。

都市の水システムの改善は確かに大いなる挑戦ですが、水の管理は紛争や汚職の撲滅、あるいは貧困の根絶と比べるとまだ実現可能な方です。スラムの水システムの開発を支援することが、何百万人という人々の生活を大きく改善する、大きく、しかし実現可能なステップであることは疑いの余地がありません。
日本はこの中でどのような役割を担っていけるでしょう。日本間違いなく大きな力になれますし、既に力強い支援の手を差し伸べています。そして皆様は、ご存知の方もいらっしゃると思いますし、意識されていない方もいらっしゃるかと思いますが、税金を納めることによって支援の手を差し伸べておられるのです。日本政府は、大使館を通じた直接の無償援助や、他国間の国際機関と通じて、必要とする人々に必要とする水道サービスを提供しています。
最も水を必要とする人々に水を届けるためには、地元の小さな組織にあるような豊富な知識が必要です。しかし、日本政府が外国の小さなコミュニティと直接やり取りをすることは可能ではありません。更に、先に申し上げましたように、これらのコミュニティは放っておくとソーシャルキャピタルが乏しい人々を差別的に扱う傾向があります。
よって、私は日本政府が被援助国の政府や中央に近い組織とやり取りをし、その中で地元をしっかりと巻き込んだ支援をするべきであると考えています。端的に申し上げますと、それぞれのプレイヤー、それぞれの関係者は、自分たちが最も適していることをすべきなのです。
日本政府は相手国政府や水道局に技術的、経済的な支援を行うほかに、小規模水道事業者を認可したり登録したりする仕組みの開発、更にはこれらの事業者が提供するサービスを管理するためのシステムの導入を行うべきです。また、ビジネスモデルの設計にも関わり、異なる状況での適切な水道料金の設定と、不当に高すぎる料金を設定する事業者に対する罰則を設けるべきです。
更に、コミュニティ内の差別を防ぎ、問題が起こった場合に解決するための法制度、そして水道局と小規模水道事業者が最も基本的な技術ノウハウを交換できるような仕組みを整備すべきです。それに加えて、ルールを守っているコミュニティ組織に対して条件の良いローン制度が新設されれば、水道システムは大幅に改善されるでしょう。

本日お話させていただいた内容は海外の水資源の状況でしたが、そこからここ東京についても学ぶべきことがあります。東京では清潔な水にアクセスするために友人を作る必要はありませんが、多くの貴重な情報を得るためには、やはり多様な友人関係が重要です。そうして様々な友人の生き方を少しずつのぞくことで自分自身の人生にも彩りが生まれ、世界の人々の多様な価値観や考え方への理解が深まり、寛容な多元的社会の発展に寄与するのです。
私の人生は、東京に来てから色々な意味で大きく変わりました。しかし最近ではこの変化の本質が、チェコから文化の大きく異なる日本へと移り住んだこと以上に、小さな町から世界有数の大都市、巨大なメガシティーへと移り住んだことであると考えるようになり、自分でも驚いています。この本郷キャンパスにいれば、キャンパスの外の方々と全く接触することなく何日も過ごすことができます。そして現に、工学部の学生の中にはそのような生活を送る人も少なくありません。
大きな都市には多種多様な人々がいます。しかし、逆説的なことに、多くの研究によれば小さな村の住民の方が、都市で生活する人よりも多様なソーシャル・ネットワークを構築しているのです。これは、東京のような大都市では、自分自身と職業、趣味や社会的規範が似ている人が数多くいるので、自然とそういう共通点の多い人達と接触する機会が多くなるからなのです。
だからこそ私は時には、いつもの日課からほんの少しでも離れ、新しい人と出会うことによって視野を広げる機会がとても大切だと思っています。これは別に、街中やパーティーで見かけた最初の外国人にいきなり「やぁ!友達になろう!」と声をかけることを進めているわけではありません。例えば、ボランティアに参加する, 運動部に入部する。私の場合は相撲部に入ったことによって、東大の他の場所では出会ったことがないような人達に出会うことができました。
そこで発見した日本文化の深さは、日本人の学生にとってさえ不思議なものも少なくないと思います。そしてこの経験は、私が日本を理解する上で大きな一歩となりました。そして本日、私が、こうして皆様の前でソーシャル・ネットワークの大切さについてお話をさせていただけたこと、この光栄な事実そのものが、惜しみないご支援を下さった多くの方々、そして本日の私を真剣に聞いて下さった皆様との、身に余る素晴らしいソーシャル・ネットワークによるものであると、深く感謝しております。

本日はご清聴、本当にありがとうございました。

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