Nir Mualam | Technion Israel Institute of Technology (original) (raw)
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Papers by Nir Mualam
Tichnun, The Journal of the Israeli Planners Association, 2024
The article reviews the phenomenon of small apartments through an international comparison of leg... more The article reviews the phenomenon of small apartments through an international comparison of legislation and policy in 14 countries. The comparison includes the minimum size of a small housing unit in these countries, the minimum size of one room in a small apartment, and a brief comparison of the reasons for applying minimum standards for the size of housing units. We found that there is a relatively wide range of definitions of a 'small apartment' in different countries and cities around the world. The policy definitions of 'small apartments' are quite broad. On the one hand, there are relatively 'generous' countries like Ireland. On the other hand, the comparative analysis point to other jurisdictions, such as Hong Kong, that define 'small apartment' in a rather stingy manner. The motivation to regulate is different as are the types of legislation (for example, local versus national). The comparison shows that in Israel the minimum size of an apartment is quite generous and is larger than most countries included in the sample, yet still below the countries of the British Commonwealth of Nations-England, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. We also found that, like other countries, in Israel there is a significant gap between the size of a single living room according to the legislation, and the aggregate size of an apartment that is considered 'small'.
Science of The Total Environment, 2021
Current debates identifying urban population density as a major catalyst for the spread of COVID-... more Current debates identifying urban population density as a major catalyst for the spread of COVID-19, and the praise for de-densification and urban sprawl that they entail, may have dire environmental consequences. Juxtaposing competing theories about the urban antecedents of COVID-19, our key argument is that urban political attributes overshadow the effects of cities' spatial characteristics. This is true even when considering levels of compliance with movement restrictions and controlling for demographic and socio-economic conditions. Taking advantage of Israel as a living lab for studying COVID-19, we examine 271 localities during the first 3 months of the outbreak in Israel, a country where over 90% of the population is urban. Rather than density, we find social makeup and politics to have a critical effect. Cities with some types of political minority groups, but not others, exhibit higher infection rates. Compliance has a significant effect and density's influence on the spread of the disease is contingent on urban political attributes. We conclude with assessing how the relationship between the politics of cities and the spread of contagious diseases sheds new light on tensions between neo-Malthusian sentiments and concerns about urban sprawl and environmental degradation.
מחקרי רגולציה, 2023
מאמר זה בוחן שינויים עכשוויים במערכת היחסים שבין ערים לבין השלטון המרכזי בישראל על רקע של עלייה ב... more מאמר זה בוחן שינויים עכשוויים במערכת היחסים שבין ערים לבין השלטון המרכזי בישראל על רקע של עלייה במופעי אוטונומיה עירונית בישראל. נתייחס ביתר פירוט לשני היבטים מובחנים מבחינה אמפירית ותאורטית: 1) האופן שבו שלטון מקומי־עירוני מפעיל את יכולותיו הניהוליות והתכנוניות, ללא תלות בהתערבות מצד השלטון המרכזי; 2) האופן שבו שלטון מקומי־עירוני מפעיל את כוחו הפוליטי מול השלטון המרכזי. בעוד ערים מאופיינות בדרך כלל לא כישות פוליטית, אלא כיחידת משנה של המדינה המתפקדת כצומת חברתי־כלכלי, הרי שכיום הערים הופכות יותר ויותר לשחקניות פוליטיות עצמאיות למחצה. בהתחשב בתפקידן החדש, ערים עוסקות כיום בתחומי מדיניות הקשורים באופן מסורתי לפעילות המדינה או למערכת הפוליטית העולמית, כמו הגירה ושינויי אקלים. אומנם התפתחויות אלה מביאות את האוטונומיה העירונית לקדמת המחקר החברתי והפוליטי, אך חסרה הבנה מעמיקה יותר של האופן שבו אוטונומיה זו באה לידי ביטוי בקביעת מדיניות עירונית. בהקשר זה עולות כמה שאלות: מהן העמדות הקיימות ביחס לאוטונומיה עירונית בישראל בקרב בעלי תפקידים בחברה האזרחית ובשלטון המקומי והמרכזי? מהם התנאים המאפשרים את צמיחתה של אוטונומיה בקרב השלטון המקומי בישראל? ואילו מתחים וקונפליקטים עולים בין ערים לבין המדינה לאור ניסיונות העצמת האוטונומיה העירונית? שאלות אלה ייבחנו להלן תוך התבססות 2020 . מקרי הבוחן נבחרו על בסיס – על עשרה מקרי בוחן שנחקרו במהלך 2019 ההבחנה בין ( 1) מדיניות מקומית חדשנית אשר ממלאת חלל שלטוני ומאתגרת במידה מסוימת את המדיניות של השלטון המרכזי, כגון פיקוח עירוני על פעוטונים וקידום זכויות להט"ב ברמה המקומית; ( 2) מדיניות מקומית־עירונית המאתגרת תהליכים ועמדות של השלטון המרכזי, לדוגמה "מלחמות השבת"; וכן ( 3) מדיניות מקומית אוטונומית המביאה לפגיעה בזכויות הפרט, כגון במקרי הדרה של נשים ומיעוטים מהמרחב הציבורי. עבור כל אחד ממקרי הבוחן ערכנו סקירה נרחבת של מסמכי מדיניות וכיסוי תקשורתי, סקר בקרב נשות מקצוע ומומחים בעלי נגיעה לתחום הנחקר והמקרה הנחקר וראיונות חצי־מובנים עם 40 אנשי ונשות מקצוע This article examines contemporary changes in the relationship between cities and central government, in light of cities' growing attempts to create autonomous practices. We consider two empirically and theoretically distinguished aspects: 1) the manner in which Local-municipal government exercises its administrative and planning capabilities, independently (without intervention by the central government; and 2) The way in which local-municipal government activates its political power vis-a-vis the central government. While Israeli cities are usually not characterized as a political entity, but as a sub-unit of the state, nevertheless nowadays cities are becoming more and more semi-independent political actors. Given their new role, cities are currently engaged in policy areas traditionally reserved for central government such as immigration and climate change. Admittedly, these developments bring urban autonomy to the fore of social and political research, but lacks a deeper understanding of how this autonomy is reflected in the determining urban policy. In this context, several questions arise: what are the opinions regarding urban autonomy In Israel among those holding positions in civil society and in the local and central government? What are the conditions that allow the growth of autonomy practices among local government in Israel? Which tensions and conflicts between cities and the state appear in light of local attempts to strengthen urban autonomy? We address these questions by looking at 10 case studies, in which cities attempted to adopt autonomous practices and regulation, while at times challenging the state.
Planning Studio Reports, Technion, 2019
The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Techn... more The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Technion- Israel Institute of Technology. The studio is a first-year exercise in which the students prepare a city-level strategic plan. At first, students collect data on a variety of issues including: the political and socio-economic conditions, the built fabric, the history, design features, and statutory conditions in the city. Then, they analyze and study key issues and problems which the city faces (SWOT and BAU analysis). Following, the students conduct a thorough field survey of inhabitants as well as interviews with a variety of stakeholders in the city. The final stages involve the creation of a shared vision and a strategic plan. The attached report summarizes key findings and proposals of a range of planning teams which worked on this project in 2016 in the City of Kiryat Shmona. The findings are presented in Hebrew. The city of Nesher is located in Israel's Haifa District. Its mountainous topography presents quite a challenge for planners, although its location in the heart of Haifa's metro area holds the promise of urban growth and expansion.
Kiryat Shmona- City Profile and Strategic Plan, 2019
The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Techn... more The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Technion- Israel Institute of Technology. The studio is a first-year exercise in which the students prepare a city-level strategic plan. At first, students collect data on a variety of issues including: the political and socio-economic conditions, the built fabric, the history, design features, and statutory conditions in the city. Then, they analyze and study key issues and problems which the city faces (SWOT and BAU analysis). Following, the students conduct a thorough field survey of inhabitants as well as interviews with a variety of stakeholders in the city. The final stages involve the creation of a shared vision and a strategic plan. The attached report summarizes key findings and proposals of a range of planning teams which worked on this project in 2017-2018 in the City of Kiryat Shmona. The findings are presented in Hebrew. The city of Kiryat Shmona is located in Israel's north, bordering Lebanon. It has face numerous social, economic, and geo-political challenges, and is still struggling today with a deficit, weak connectivity to other regions, as well as regional competition with nearby towns and Kibbutzim.
Land Use Policy, 2019
Studies about the effectiveness and efficiency of planning policies in general, and of land readj... more Studies about the effectiveness and efficiency of planning policies in general, and of land readjustment (LR) regulations in particular, face many challenges given the paucity of common methods that allow systematic comparisons between different contexts. This paper develops an analytical framework to study the effectiveness and efficiency of LR-regulations and applies it in Germany, Spain, and Israel. This framework defines several independent variables: LR regulation, its related coercive powers, and its interaction with public value capture instruments. The conceptual frame also defines the dependent variables: certainty about the provision of necessary inputs (land and financial means) and about the necessary outputs (implementation of land readjustment and infrastructure provision). Using this analytical framework, it is possible to compare the degree to which the studied LR-regulations are effective and efficient, i.e. whether they provide serviced building plots with proper public infrastructure without public subsidy.
המחקר בוחן מבחינה תכנונית ומשפטית את יעוד הקרקע השפ"פי בישראל: איזו מדיניות מוחלת על השפפ הישראלי... more המחקר בוחן מבחינה תכנונית ומשפטית את יעוד הקרקע השפ"פי בישראל: איזו מדיניות מוחלת על השפפ הישראלי? ומהם האתגרים וההזדמנויות בקביעתו במסגרת תכניות בניין עיר? תוך ניתוח מדגם תכניות בשלוש ערי מבחן , מבקש המאמר לשרטט את ההוראות החלות על שטחים פרטיים פתוחים, והקשיים המתעוררים כתוצאה מהתגברות השימוש ביעוד השפ"פ
International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2017
The article examines conflict associated with efforts to conserve modern architecture. The tensio... more The article examines conflict associated with efforts to conserve modern architecture. The tension between preservation and functional concerns and the cleavage between form and function are brought to the fore by looking at a prominent case study of the concert hall of Tel Aviv, Israel. Between 2005-2013, the historic concert hall was the subject of a substantial renovation plan, which became contentious owing to its impact on the interior and exterior features of the building. With the help of interviews, content analysis of proceedings, planning decisions and court rulings, the paper examines the obstacles for reaching a balance between form and function and particularly: (1) the role of cultural elites in shaping historic places and in determining the ‘functional threshold’ of modern buildings; (2) how emotional attachments to cultural properties impact the course of built heritage conflicts; and (3) the failure of public participation. Overall, the analysis suggests that participatory avenues can be pursued in order to bridge the gap between opponents and proponents of structural modifications. When collaboration fails, however, the opinion of the local communities most impacted by the historic structure should to be given greater consideration, and legal redress should remain a last resort
![Research paper thumbnail of Appeal Tribunals in Land Use Planning: Look-alikes or different species ? [2014, Published in the Urban Lawyer]](https://attachments.academia-assets.com/35363727/thumbnails/1.jpg)
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Nir Mualam (2014). Rent, Rent Stabilization and Control in Israel-An Overview (in Hebrew).
Tichnun, The Journal of the Israeli Planners Association, 2024
The article reviews the phenomenon of small apartments through an international comparison of leg... more The article reviews the phenomenon of small apartments through an international comparison of legislation and policy in 14 countries. The comparison includes the minimum size of a small housing unit in these countries, the minimum size of one room in a small apartment, and a brief comparison of the reasons for applying minimum standards for the size of housing units. We found that there is a relatively wide range of definitions of a 'small apartment' in different countries and cities around the world. The policy definitions of 'small apartments' are quite broad. On the one hand, there are relatively 'generous' countries like Ireland. On the other hand, the comparative analysis point to other jurisdictions, such as Hong Kong, that define 'small apartment' in a rather stingy manner. The motivation to regulate is different as are the types of legislation (for example, local versus national). The comparison shows that in Israel the minimum size of an apartment is quite generous and is larger than most countries included in the sample, yet still below the countries of the British Commonwealth of Nations-England, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand. We also found that, like other countries, in Israel there is a significant gap between the size of a single living room according to the legislation, and the aggregate size of an apartment that is considered 'small'.
Science of The Total Environment, 2021
Current debates identifying urban population density as a major catalyst for the spread of COVID-... more Current debates identifying urban population density as a major catalyst for the spread of COVID-19, and the praise for de-densification and urban sprawl that they entail, may have dire environmental consequences. Juxtaposing competing theories about the urban antecedents of COVID-19, our key argument is that urban political attributes overshadow the effects of cities' spatial characteristics. This is true even when considering levels of compliance with movement restrictions and controlling for demographic and socio-economic conditions. Taking advantage of Israel as a living lab for studying COVID-19, we examine 271 localities during the first 3 months of the outbreak in Israel, a country where over 90% of the population is urban. Rather than density, we find social makeup and politics to have a critical effect. Cities with some types of political minority groups, but not others, exhibit higher infection rates. Compliance has a significant effect and density's influence on the spread of the disease is contingent on urban political attributes. We conclude with assessing how the relationship between the politics of cities and the spread of contagious diseases sheds new light on tensions between neo-Malthusian sentiments and concerns about urban sprawl and environmental degradation.
מחקרי רגולציה, 2023
מאמר זה בוחן שינויים עכשוויים במערכת היחסים שבין ערים לבין השלטון המרכזי בישראל על רקע של עלייה ב... more מאמר זה בוחן שינויים עכשוויים במערכת היחסים שבין ערים לבין השלטון המרכזי בישראל על רקע של עלייה במופעי אוטונומיה עירונית בישראל. נתייחס ביתר פירוט לשני היבטים מובחנים מבחינה אמפירית ותאורטית: 1) האופן שבו שלטון מקומי־עירוני מפעיל את יכולותיו הניהוליות והתכנוניות, ללא תלות בהתערבות מצד השלטון המרכזי; 2) האופן שבו שלטון מקומי־עירוני מפעיל את כוחו הפוליטי מול השלטון המרכזי. בעוד ערים מאופיינות בדרך כלל לא כישות פוליטית, אלא כיחידת משנה של המדינה המתפקדת כצומת חברתי־כלכלי, הרי שכיום הערים הופכות יותר ויותר לשחקניות פוליטיות עצמאיות למחצה. בהתחשב בתפקידן החדש, ערים עוסקות כיום בתחומי מדיניות הקשורים באופן מסורתי לפעילות המדינה או למערכת הפוליטית העולמית, כמו הגירה ושינויי אקלים. אומנם התפתחויות אלה מביאות את האוטונומיה העירונית לקדמת המחקר החברתי והפוליטי, אך חסרה הבנה מעמיקה יותר של האופן שבו אוטונומיה זו באה לידי ביטוי בקביעת מדיניות עירונית. בהקשר זה עולות כמה שאלות: מהן העמדות הקיימות ביחס לאוטונומיה עירונית בישראל בקרב בעלי תפקידים בחברה האזרחית ובשלטון המקומי והמרכזי? מהם התנאים המאפשרים את צמיחתה של אוטונומיה בקרב השלטון המקומי בישראל? ואילו מתחים וקונפליקטים עולים בין ערים לבין המדינה לאור ניסיונות העצמת האוטונומיה העירונית? שאלות אלה ייבחנו להלן תוך התבססות 2020 . מקרי הבוחן נבחרו על בסיס – על עשרה מקרי בוחן שנחקרו במהלך 2019 ההבחנה בין ( 1) מדיניות מקומית חדשנית אשר ממלאת חלל שלטוני ומאתגרת במידה מסוימת את המדיניות של השלטון המרכזי, כגון פיקוח עירוני על פעוטונים וקידום זכויות להט"ב ברמה המקומית; ( 2) מדיניות מקומית־עירונית המאתגרת תהליכים ועמדות של השלטון המרכזי, לדוגמה "מלחמות השבת"; וכן ( 3) מדיניות מקומית אוטונומית המביאה לפגיעה בזכויות הפרט, כגון במקרי הדרה של נשים ומיעוטים מהמרחב הציבורי. עבור כל אחד ממקרי הבוחן ערכנו סקירה נרחבת של מסמכי מדיניות וכיסוי תקשורתי, סקר בקרב נשות מקצוע ומומחים בעלי נגיעה לתחום הנחקר והמקרה הנחקר וראיונות חצי־מובנים עם 40 אנשי ונשות מקצוע This article examines contemporary changes in the relationship between cities and central government, in light of cities' growing attempts to create autonomous practices. We consider two empirically and theoretically distinguished aspects: 1) the manner in which Local-municipal government exercises its administrative and planning capabilities, independently (without intervention by the central government; and 2) The way in which local-municipal government activates its political power vis-a-vis the central government. While Israeli cities are usually not characterized as a political entity, but as a sub-unit of the state, nevertheless nowadays cities are becoming more and more semi-independent political actors. Given their new role, cities are currently engaged in policy areas traditionally reserved for central government such as immigration and climate change. Admittedly, these developments bring urban autonomy to the fore of social and political research, but lacks a deeper understanding of how this autonomy is reflected in the determining urban policy. In this context, several questions arise: what are the opinions regarding urban autonomy In Israel among those holding positions in civil society and in the local and central government? What are the conditions that allow the growth of autonomy practices among local government in Israel? Which tensions and conflicts between cities and the state appear in light of local attempts to strengthen urban autonomy? We address these questions by looking at 10 case studies, in which cities attempted to adopt autonomous practices and regulation, while at times challenging the state.
Planning Studio Reports, Technion, 2019
The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Techn... more The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Technion- Israel Institute of Technology. The studio is a first-year exercise in which the students prepare a city-level strategic plan. At first, students collect data on a variety of issues including: the political and socio-economic conditions, the built fabric, the history, design features, and statutory conditions in the city. Then, they analyze and study key issues and problems which the city faces (SWOT and BAU analysis). Following, the students conduct a thorough field survey of inhabitants as well as interviews with a variety of stakeholders in the city. The final stages involve the creation of a shared vision and a strategic plan. The attached report summarizes key findings and proposals of a range of planning teams which worked on this project in 2016 in the City of Kiryat Shmona. The findings are presented in Hebrew. The city of Nesher is located in Israel's Haifa District. Its mountainous topography presents quite a challenge for planners, although its location in the heart of Haifa's metro area holds the promise of urban growth and expansion.
Kiryat Shmona- City Profile and Strategic Plan, 2019
The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Techn... more The report sums up the work of a group of 50 students in the MSc program in Planning at the Technion- Israel Institute of Technology. The studio is a first-year exercise in which the students prepare a city-level strategic plan. At first, students collect data on a variety of issues including: the political and socio-economic conditions, the built fabric, the history, design features, and statutory conditions in the city. Then, they analyze and study key issues and problems which the city faces (SWOT and BAU analysis). Following, the students conduct a thorough field survey of inhabitants as well as interviews with a variety of stakeholders in the city. The final stages involve the creation of a shared vision and a strategic plan. The attached report summarizes key findings and proposals of a range of planning teams which worked on this project in 2017-2018 in the City of Kiryat Shmona. The findings are presented in Hebrew. The city of Kiryat Shmona is located in Israel's north, bordering Lebanon. It has face numerous social, economic, and geo-political challenges, and is still struggling today with a deficit, weak connectivity to other regions, as well as regional competition with nearby towns and Kibbutzim.
Land Use Policy, 2019
Studies about the effectiveness and efficiency of planning policies in general, and of land readj... more Studies about the effectiveness and efficiency of planning policies in general, and of land readjustment (LR) regulations in particular, face many challenges given the paucity of common methods that allow systematic comparisons between different contexts. This paper develops an analytical framework to study the effectiveness and efficiency of LR-regulations and applies it in Germany, Spain, and Israel. This framework defines several independent variables: LR regulation, its related coercive powers, and its interaction with public value capture instruments. The conceptual frame also defines the dependent variables: certainty about the provision of necessary inputs (land and financial means) and about the necessary outputs (implementation of land readjustment and infrastructure provision). Using this analytical framework, it is possible to compare the degree to which the studied LR-regulations are effective and efficient, i.e. whether they provide serviced building plots with proper public infrastructure without public subsidy.
המחקר בוחן מבחינה תכנונית ומשפטית את יעוד הקרקע השפ"פי בישראל: איזו מדיניות מוחלת על השפפ הישראלי... more המחקר בוחן מבחינה תכנונית ומשפטית את יעוד הקרקע השפ"פי בישראל: איזו מדיניות מוחלת על השפפ הישראלי? ומהם האתגרים וההזדמנויות בקביעתו במסגרת תכניות בניין עיר? תוך ניתוח מדגם תכניות בשלוש ערי מבחן , מבקש המאמר לשרטט את ההוראות החלות על שטחים פרטיים פתוחים, והקשיים המתעוררים כתוצאה מהתגברות השימוש ביעוד השפ"פ
International Journal of Heritage Studies, 2017
The article examines conflict associated with efforts to conserve modern architecture. The tensio... more The article examines conflict associated with efforts to conserve modern architecture. The tension between preservation and functional concerns and the cleavage between form and function are brought to the fore by looking at a prominent case study of the concert hall of Tel Aviv, Israel. Between 2005-2013, the historic concert hall was the subject of a substantial renovation plan, which became contentious owing to its impact on the interior and exterior features of the building. With the help of interviews, content analysis of proceedings, planning decisions and court rulings, the paper examines the obstacles for reaching a balance between form and function and particularly: (1) the role of cultural elites in shaping historic places and in determining the ‘functional threshold’ of modern buildings; (2) how emotional attachments to cultural properties impact the course of built heritage conflicts; and (3) the failure of public participation. Overall, the analysis suggests that participatory avenues can be pursued in order to bridge the gap between opponents and proponents of structural modifications. When collaboration fails, however, the opinion of the local communities most impacted by the historic structure should to be given greater consideration, and legal redress should remain a last resort
Nir Mualam (2014). Rent, Rent Stabilization and Control in Israel-An Overview (in Hebrew).
by Ugo Carughi, Massimo Visone, Rosalia Vittorini, Ashraf M. Salama, Roberto Parisi, Paolo Caratelli, Pedro Bannen, Olimpia Niglio, eva battis, Britta Rudolff, Lorenzo Miccoli, Gunawan Tjahjono, Nalini Thakur, Joseph Underwood, Rachelle Alterman, Nir Mualam, Hasniyati Hamzah, Manfredo Manfredini, Koompong Noobanjong, Naima Benkari, Koompong Noobanjong, Riccardo de Martino, Julia Gatley, Maurizio Boriani, francesca capano, Andreas Giacumacatos, Hans-Rudolf Meier, Uģis Bratuškins, Slavica Stamatovic Vuckovic, Grzegorz Grajewski, Ciro Birra, Anda-Lucia Spânu, M P García Cuetos, Yildiz Salman, Nilufer Baturayoglu Yoney, Fedir Gontsa, Elain Harwood, yahaya ahmad, Graciela Viñuales, and Ola Uduku
Time Frames provides a reconnaissance on the conservation rules and current protection policies o... more Time Frames provides a reconnaissance on the conservation rules and current protection policies of more than 100 countries, with particular attention to the emerging nations and twentieth-century architecture. The contributions illustrate the critical issues related to architectural listings, with a brief history of national approaches, a linkography and a short bibliography. The book also provides a short critical lexicography, with 12 papers written by scholars and experts including topics on identities, heritages, conservation, memories and the economy. By examining the methods used to designate building as heritage sites across the continents, this book provides a comprehensive overview of current protection policies of twentieth-century architecture as well as the role of architectural history.
Sustainability, 2019
The question leading this research is: what are the attributes and scales of comparative research... more The question leading this research is: what are the attributes and scales of comparative research that applies to built heritage studies? The paper begins by recognizing the interrelatedness of built heritage protection and sustainable urban development. While comparative research into built heritage studies analyses and documents existing practices, policies and impacts, its generalizable capacities are often lacking and therefore less applicable to policy-makers. In an attempt to further the potential contribution of such studies, the paper maps comparative built heritage research based on a critical review of over 100 articles and books. The analysis of these sources relies on an evaluative categorization of comparative built heritage studies. This categorization consists of four criteria: the number of compared cases, their geographic location, the scope of comparison and its degree of structuredness. The findings suggest that heritage studies compare a relatively small number of cases; they are quite structured; focus on local as well as national-level analysis; and lean towards Western-centered comparisons. The paper concludes by suggesting that built heritage studies can contribute to sustainable urban development policies by taking on comparative research that has a large enough N, expanding non-Eurocentric and Anglo-American research, comparing local jurisdictions in more than one country and by utilizing highly structured categories for comparison. View Full-Text