Persistent Organic Pollutants Research Papers (original) (raw)

Palladium-based nanoparticles immobilized in polymeric matrices were applied to the reductive dechlorination of 3,3′,4,4′-tetrachlorobiphenyl (PCB77) at room temperature. Two different dechlorination platforms were evaluated using (1) Pd nanoparticles within conductive polypyrrole films; or (2) immobilized Fe/Pd nanoparticles within polyvinylidene fluoride microfiltration membranes. For the first approach, the polypyrrole film was electrochemically formed in the presence of perchlorate ions that were incorporated into the film to counterbalance the positive charges of the polypyrrole chain. The film was then incubated in a solution containing tetrachloropalladate ions, which were exchanged with the perchlorate ions within the film. During this exchange, reduction of tetrachloropalladate by polypyrrole occurred, which led to the formation of palladium nanoparticles within the film. For the second approach, the membranesupported Fe/Pd nanoparticles were prepared in three steps: polymerization of acrylic acid in polyvinylidene fluoride microfiltration membrane pores was followed by ion exchange of Fe 2+ , and then chemical reduction of the ferrous ions bound to the carboxylate groups. The membranesupported iron nanoparticles were then soaked in a solution of tetrachloropalladate resulting in the deposition of Pd on the Fe surface. The nanoparticles prepared by both approaches were employed in the dechlorination of PCB77. The presence of hydrogen was required when the monometallic Pd nanoparticles were employed. The results indicate the removal of chlorine atoms from PCB77, which led to the formation of lower chlorinated intermediates and ultimately biphenyl. Toxicity associated with vascular dysfunction by PCB77 and biphenyl was compared using cultured endothelial cells. The data strongly suggest that the dechlorination system used in this study markedly reduced the proinflammatory activity of PCB77, a persistent organic pollutant.

- by Dibakar Bhattacharyya
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- Engineering, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Electrochemistry, Nanoparticle

The authors examined the relation between fish consumption during pregnancy and fetal growth among 44,824 women from the Danish National Birth Cohort (1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002). They evaluated the associations between consumption of total fish, fatty fish, and lean fish in midpregnancy and birth weight, birth length, and head circumference among singleton full-term infants. Fish consumption was ascertained by food frequency questionnaire. The birth of infants classified below the 10th percentile for gestational age and gender was significantly increased among women who consumed more than 60 g of fish per day, as compared with women who consumed 5 g or less per day. Adjusted odds ratios were 1.24 (95% confidence interval (CI): 1.03, 1.49) for birth weight and 1.21 (95% CI: 1.01, 1.43) for head circumference. The adjusted odds ratio was borderline significant for birth length (odds ratio ¼ 1.20, 95% CI: 1.00, 1.45). These increases in risk were followed by small decreases in average values for these growth measures. Furthermore, the inverse association for total fish consumption could be explained by consumption of fatty fish, while no association was found for lean fish. These results indicate that consumption of fatty fish, a known route of exposure to persistent organic pollutants, could be associated with reduced fetal growth.

- by Inga Thorsdottir
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Food, Risk assessment, Linear models

Edible marine species from several areas of the Adriatic sea were analyzed for their content in persistent organic pollutants (POPs), such as polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), biphenyls (PCBs), and pp H -DDE (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene), a metabolite of the organochlorine pesticide dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). On the whole, PCDD/F contamination levels were low. In general, I-TEQ ®ndings were greater for those species at higher levels in the trophic web (mackerel > red mullet > anchovy). Contamination levels were within 0.23 and 1.07 pg TEQ/g fw (fresh weight) in the aforesaid species, while all remaining species exhibited contamination levels ranging from approximately 0.07 to 0.25 pg TEQ/g fw. Besides, TEQ cumulative ®ndings in species from the northern area were in general greater than those from the central and southern areas. PCB cumulative ®ndings in the samples also revealed a detectable dierence in contamination levels in species obtained from the northern, central, and southern sampling sites, between 7.6 and 177, 2.3 and 157, and 4.5 and 94 ng/g fw, respectively.The greatest PCB concentrations were found in mackerel (94±177 ng/g fw). Finally, DDE concentration levels varied from 0.7 to 32.4 ng/g fw. The highest levels of contamination were found in mackerel, red mullet and anchovy (17.7±32.4 ng/g fw, 8.1±9.8 ng/ g fw, and 6.4±11.9 ng/g fw, respectively). Ó

- by Fulvio Ferrara and +1
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Environmental Monitoring, Multidisciplinary, Insecticides

This paper reports on contamination levels and their sub-lethal toxicological effects in specimens of the European eel (Anguilla anguilla) in the Orbetello Lagoon, (Tuscany, Italy). Organochlorine pesticides (OC) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were investigated as priority pollutants in muscle tissue. Phase I P450 enzymes, i.e., EROD, B(a)PMO and the two reductases (NADH ferryred and cyt c.), and cholinesterase (ChE) were assayed in liver and muscle as sensitive biological indicators of fish health. PCBs, lindane and p,p¢DDE in muscles showed a wide concentration range (0.001-0.025 lg g )1 wet weight) and attained the lowest levels in the eastern basin. High homogeneity and relatively low values were observed for phase I P450 enzymes, suggesting that no significant detoxification process of OC pesticides and PCBs occurred. The threat posed by organophosphate insecticides (OP) and CB compounds was also evidenced by ChE activity. The integrated response of phase I P450 enzymes and ChE activity being an indicator of potential effects of toxic contaminant levels on reproductive success and population decline of eels, can be used to assess the overall lagoon quality. Hydrobiologia (2005) 550:237-249 Ó Springer 2005 P. Viaroli, M. Mistri, M.

Samples of polyethylene pellets were collected at 30 beaches from 17 countries and analyzed for organochlorine compounds. PCB concentrations in the pellets were highest on US coasts, followed by western Europe and Japan, and were lower in tropical Asia, southern Africa and Australia. This spatial pattern reflected regional differences in the usage of PCBs and was positively correlated with data from Mussel Watch, another monitoring approach. DDTs showed high concentrations on the US west coast and in Vietnam. In Vietnam, DDT was predominant over its metabolites (DDE and DDD), suggesting the principal source may be current usage of the pesticide for malaria control. High concentrations of pesticide HCHs were detected in the pellets from southern Africa, suggesting current usage of the pesticides in southern Africa. This study demonstrates the utility and feasibility of the International Pellet Watch approach to monitor POPs at a global scale.

- by Quang Mars
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- Geography, Physics, Western Europe, Persistent Organic Pollutants

Elevated levels of several organochlorine pesticides were found in the ambient air of southern Mexico.

- by Wayne McFee
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, MARINE POLLUTION, Mortality, Multidisciplinary

The aim to prepare and present this paper is to highlight the source, management and quantification of the unintentional POPs in an unindustrialized least developing landlocked small country Nepal. The methodology adopted for this is the review of the relevant research documents and national initiative towards addressing this issues complemented with sharing of the first hand experience from the implementation of the POPs management activities undertaken by our organization. Nepal is a small country of size 147181 sq.km but having large sources of POPs including unintentional POPs (PCDD/Fs) mainly because of weak enforcement of the existing environment related laws, standards and international commitment including POPs Convention. Country became homes to about 75 tons of Obsolete Pesticide since last 30 years including about 44 percent (33 tons out of 75) are of known POPs. These obsolete pesticides including identified POPs have been poorly stored in some about 25 locations through...

- by Manohar Sah
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- Environmental Science, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Health Care, Waste Management

Pesticides have been extensibility used in the control of agricultural and sanitary pests. From World War II onward, more efficient and cheaper synthetic pesticides, such as organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), including DDT, lindane, or endosulfan, replaced the relatively environmentally friendly pesticides. OCPs were widely used worldwide; however, in the 1970s these compounds were began banned due to their harmful effects on both, biota and humans. Nevertheless, half a century later, due to their high persistence and the existence of some active sources, OCPs remain a problem for the health of marine ecosystems. Once in the environment, their distribution depends on the interaction of several factors -explained in detail in this chapter- such as the physical-chemical properties of each compound; interactions with the matrix; characteristics of the environment; and intensity, distance, and seasonality of the source, between others. This chapter reviews current levels, environmental behavior and fate, and effects on biota of organochlorine pesticides in global marine coastal environments, noting that these compounds are still detectable and could be harmful to marine biota

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a global concern due to their ubiquitous presence and toxicity. Currently, there is a lack of information regarding POPs from South Africa. Here we report and interpret concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), -dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and co-planarbiphenyls (PCBs) in soils and sediments collected from central South Africa. High resolution gas chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (HRGC/HRMS) and the H4IIE-luc bio-assay were used to identify and quantify individual PCDD/F congeners and to report the total concentration of 2,3,7,8-tetrachloro dibenzo-p-dioxin equivalents (TCDD-EQ), respectively. TCDD-EQs determined by use of the bioassay, and concentrations of WHO 2005 -TEQ (toxic equivalents) determined by chemical analysis, were similar. The limit of detection (LOD) for the bio-assay was 0.82 and 2.8 ng TCDD-EQ kg À1 , dw for sediment and soil, respectively. EQ20 concentrations determined by use of the bio-assay ranged from <LOD to 70 ng TCDD-EQ kg À1 , dw for soil, and from <LOD to 45 ng TCDD-EQ kg À1 , dw for sediment. Concentrations of WHO 2005 -TEQ in soils were generally greater than those in sediments, and soils from the industrial area of Vanderbijlpark and the residential area of Klerksdorp contained the greatest concentrations. Based on the congener-specific HRGC/HRMS analyzes, concentrations of WHO 2005 -TEQ ranged from 0.12 to 32 ng WHO 2005 -TEQ kg À1 , dw in sediments, and between 0.34 and 20 ng WHO 2005 -TEQ kg À1 , dw in soils. The sources, processes and threats that govern and are associated with the lesser concentrations in sediment and greater concentrations in soils need further investigation.

Background, aim, and scope Passive air sampling survey of the Central and Eastern Europe was initiated in 2006. This paper presents data on toxic organic compounds such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB 28, 52, 101, 118, 153, 138, and 180), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), pentachlorobenzene (PeCB), hexachlorocyclohexane compounds (α-HCH, β-HCH,γ-HCH, δ-HCH), and dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) compounds (p,p′DDE, p,p′DDD, p,p′DDT, o,p′DDE, o,p′DDD, and o,p′DDT) determined in ambient air and soil samples collected at Estonian monitoring stations. Materials and methods Ambient air and soil samples were collected in five sites in northern Estonia. Passive air samplers were deployed four times over 4-week periods covering the period April-August 2006. Samples were analyzed using gas chromatography-electron capture detector (HP 5890) supplied with a Quadrex fused silica column 5% Ph for organochlorine pesticides (OCPs). Local ground-boundary wind field was modeled for each monitoring station and sampling period on the basis of observed wind data from the nearest meteorological station with a high quality of time series and compared with upper air (at 850and 500-hPa level) data from Tallinn-Harku aerological station.

- by Ain Kull
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- Geography, Eastern Europe, Soil, Persistent Organic Pollutants

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of toxic compounds with global distribution and long persistence in the environment. POPs are hydrophobic with the potential to bioaccumulate in fatty bodies of tissues and biomagnified through food webs. Remediation of sites contaminated with POPs is highly desirable. Although phytoremediation of POPs is very difficult because of their low bioavailability, recent literature indicates that some plants, especially those belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family are capable of taking up and accumulate significant amounts of POPs. In this chapter we summarize the most important findings concerning POPs in relation to Cucurbitaceae.

- by Tamas Komives
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- Phytoremediation, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Cucurbitaceae,

Cetaceans are federally protected species that are prone to accumulate complex mixtures of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), which individually may exert estrogenic or antiestrogenic effects. In the present study it was assessed whether contaminant mixtures harbored by cetaceans are estrogenic or antiestrogenic using a comparative approach. Interactions of antiestrogenic and estrogenic compounds were first investigated with the E-Screen assay using a mixture of four POPs (dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene [4,4 0 -DDE], trans-nonachlor, and polychlorinated biphenyls [PCBs] 138 180) prevalent in cetacean blubber. Estrogenic/antiestrogenic activity was determined for the individual compounds and their binary, tertiary, and quaternary combinations. Significantly different responses were observed for the various POP mixtures, including enhanced estrogenic and antiestrogenic effects and antagonistic interactions. These results were then compared to the concentrations and estrogenic/antiestrogenic activity of contaminant mixtures isolated directly from the blubber of 15 bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) collected from five U.S. Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico locations. The lowest observed effect concentrations (LOECs) determined for 4,4 0 -DDE (20 mmol/L), PCB 138 (20 mmol/L), PCB 180 (21 mmol/L), and trans-nonachlor (3 mmol/L) in the E-Screen were greater than estimated dolphin blood concentrations. Although estimated blood concentrations were below the LOECs, significant estrogenic activity was detected in diluted dolphin blubber from Cape May, NJ and Bermuda. Positive correlations between blubber estrogenicity and select POP concentrations (SDDTs, SPBDEs, SHCB, Sestrogenic PCBs, Sestrogenic POPs) were also observed. Collectively, these results suggest that select bottlenose dolphin populations may be exposed to contaminants that act in concert to exert estrogenic effects at biologically relevant concentrations. These observations do not necessarily provide direct evidence of endocrine disruption; however, they may indicate an environmental source of xenoestrogenic exposure warranting future research.

The environmental chemistry and ecotoxicology of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are fascinating areas of scienti®c research. Our objective in this paper is to provide a brief, focussed overview of what constitutes a POP, highlight the harmful eects they may have on biota, make some comments on their environmental sources and analysis, their environmental trends and processes, their movement through foodchains and highlight some important regional-and global-scale environmental transport issues. Finally, we oer some personal thoughts on some current and future areas of scienti®c enquiry on POPs. #

The ultimate objective of an aquaculture feed manufacturer and aquaculture food supplier is to ensure that the feed or food produced is both safe and wholesome. Reported food safety risks, which may be associated with the use of commercial animal feeds, including compound aquaculture feeds, usually result from the possible presence of unwanted contaminants, either within the feed ingredients used or from the external contamination of the finished feed on prolonged storage. The major animal feed contaminants that have been reported to date have included Salmonellae, mycotoxins, veterinary drug residues, persistent organic pollutants, agricultural and other chemicals (solvent residues, melamine), heavy metals (mercury, lead, cadmium) and excess mineral salts (hexavalent chromium, arsenic, selenium, flourine), and transmissible spongiform encephalopathies. Apart from the direct negative effect of these possible contaminants on the health of the cultured target species, there is a risk that the feed contaminants may be passed along the food chain, via contaminated aquaculture produce, to consumers. In recent years, public concern regarding food safety has increased as a consequence of the increasing prevalence of antibiotic residues, persistent organic pollutants, and chemicals in farmed seafood. The important role played by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the Codex Alimentarius Commission in the development of international standards, guidelines, and recommendations to protect the health of consumers and ensure fair practices in the food trade is discussed.

- by Albert Tacon
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- Food Safety, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Fisheries, Global Health

Thermoplastic resin pellets are melted and formed into an enormous number of inexpensive consumer goods, many of which are discarded after a relatively short period of use, dropped haphazardly onto watersheds and then make their way to the ocean where some get ingested by marine life. In 2003 and 2004 pre-production thermoplastic resin pellets and post-consumer plastic fragments were collected and analyzed for contamination for persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Samples were taken from the North Pacific Gyre, and selected sites in California, Hawaii, and from Guadalupe Island, Mexico. The total concentration of PCBs ranged from 27 to 980 ng/g; DDTs from 22 to 7100 ng/g and PAHs from 39 to 1200 ng/g, and aliphatic hydrocarbons from 1.1 to 8600 lg/g. Analytical methods were developed to extract, concentrate and identify POPs that may have accumulated on plastic fragments and plastic pellets. The results of this study confirm that plastic debris is a trap for POPs.

The aim of this study was to assess the influence of adipose tissue concentrations of a group of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) on the risk of hypertension in an adult cohort of residents of Granada (Southern Spain) over a 10-year follow-up. No chemical was significantly associated with the risk of hypertension in the overall population or when models were stratified by sex or median age. However, we found positive associations between log-transformed POP concentrations and hypertension risk in participants with body mass index (BMI) above the median value of 26.3 kg/m 2 , which were statistically significant for hexachlorobenzene (HR ¼1.26, 95% CI¼ 1.03-1.56), β-hexachlorocyclohexane (HR ¼ 1.25, 95% CI¼ 1.03-1.51), and polychlorinated biphenyl congeners -138 (HR ¼ 1.32, 95% CI ¼1.04-1.69) and -153 (HR ¼1.36, 95% CI¼ 1.00-1.84). Inverse associations were observed in the subgroup with BMI r 26.3 kg/m 2 , but none was statistically significant. More research and a longer follow-up period are warranted to verify these associations and elucidate the role of obesity as a potential effect modifier. Given the elevated worldwide frequency of POP exposure and hypertension, the public health impact of this relationship may be substantial.

- by Juan Arrebola and +1
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- Epidemiology, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Obesity, Adipose tissue

This review discusses the mechanisms of generation and potential impacts of microplastics in the ocean environment. Weathering degradation of plastics on the beaches results in their surface embrittlement and microcracking, yielding microparticles that are carried into water by wind or wave action. Unlike inorganic fines present in sea water, microplastics concentrate persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by partition. The relevant distribution coefficients for common POPs are several orders of magnitude in favour of the plastic medium. Consequently, the microparticles laden with high levels of POPs can be ingested by marine biota. Bioavailability and the efficiency of transfer of the ingested POPs across trophic levels are not known and the potential damage posed by these to the marine ecosystem has yet to be quantified and modelled. Given the increasing levels of plastic pollution of the oceans it is important to better understand the impact of microplastics in the ocean food web.

- by Mageswari Sangaralingam
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants

An extensive soil survey was carried out to study the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) contaminations in 138 soil samples collected throughout Hong Kong. Results demonstrated that there were low levels of PAH contaminations (median of P 16 US EPA PAHs ¼ 140 lg kg À1 ) for all land uses (urban park, greening area, country park, rural area, restored landfill, agricultural farmland, orchard farm, crematorium, industrial and near highway area). However, localized hotspots were identified with P 16PAH concentrations as high as 19 500 lg kg À1 in one urban park. These findings were also confirmed by multivariate analysis. Comparison of PAH profiles showed a widespread domination of its 4-ring member. The major contribution was vehicular emissions from petroleum, and however at the hotspots, the improper disposal of used motor oils. In general, the pollution levels for all the land uses were below the recommended values for residential and general purposes stated in soil quality guidelines such as Netherlands and Denmark except certain identified hotspots. The potential health hazards imposed by these hotspots were alarming, and their existence (3 out of 138 samples) suggested that sole monitoring of atmospheric PAHs may not adequately address the hidden risks to human in urban city.

- by (Jake) Ming Kei Chung
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Risk assessment, Soil Pollution, PAHS

Zambia is a country with an extensive mining industry with the majority of mines located in the Copperbelt province. Through this region of the country, the Kafue River drains and receives effluent water from mining activities as well as from other industrial point sources. In addition, production of agricultural products and pest control requires use of different pesticides in the area. Information on industrial and agricultural pollution has not been clearly identified in Zambia, and little attention has been paid to pollution control and possible impact of metals, pesticides, and other persistent compounds in the environment. The objective of this study was to introduce and to evaluate a few methodologies based on in situ bioassays for environmental assessment to promote sustainable and environmentally sound water resource management of the Kafue River. The results show that caged threespot tilapia exposed downstream of industrial points sources rapidly bioaccumulate several trace elements, i.e., Cd, Co, Cu, Cr, Ni. These elements also occurred in much higher concentrations in water samples downstream of the industrial area compared with a locality upstream. Furthermore, the use of a semipermeable membrane device (SPMD) for passive absorption of lipophilic pollutants in the water showed relatively high concentration of several pesticides, i.e., DDT with major metabolites, PCB, and dieldrin. The present study shows that only 2 weeks of in situ studies in waters contaminated by pollutants affects in situ exposed fish and that the correlation between water and tissue concentrations was relatively good. Both trace elements and persistent organic pollutants occurred in such high concentrations that they must be considered from ecotoxicological aspects and may affect aquatic animal health.

- by Leif Norrgren
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Environmental Monitoring, Mining, Zambia

The Yangtze River has been a source of life and prosperity for the Chinese people for centuries and is a habitat for a remarkable variety of aquatic species. But the river suffers from huge amounts of urban sewage, agricultural effluents, and industrial wastewater as well as ship navigation wastes along its course. With respect to the vast amounts of water and sediments discharged by the Yangtze River, it is reasonable to ask whether the pollution problem may be solved by simple dilution. This article reviews the past two decades of published research on organic pollutants in the Yangtze River and several adjacent water bodies connected to the main stream, according to a holistic approach. Organic pollutant levels and potential effects of water and sediments on wildlife and humans, measured in vitro, in vivo, and in situ, were critically reviewed. The contamination with organic pollutants, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins/polychlorinated dibenzofurans, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), and others, of water and sediment along the river was described. Especially Wuhan section and the Yangtze Estuary exhibited stronger pollution than other sections. Bioassays, displaying predominantly the endpoints mutagenicity and endocrine disruption, applied at sediments, drinking water, and surface water indicated a potential health risk in several areas. Aquatic organisms exhibited detectable concentrations of toxic compounds like PCBs, OCPs, PBDEs, and PFCs. Genotoxic effects could also be assessed in situ in fish. To summarize, it can be stated that dilution reduces the ecotoxicological risk in the Yangtze River, but does not eliminate it. Keeping in mind an approximately 14 times greater water discharge compared to the major European river Rhine, the absolute pollution mass transfer of the Yangtze River is of severe concern for the environmental quality of its estuary and the East China Sea. Based on the review, further research needs have been identified.

- by Richard Ottermanns and +1
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Aquatic Toxicology, Mutagenicity, Fish Ecology

A factorial experimental design based on temperature, feed rate and addition of ''working fluid" (WF; fatty acid ethyl esters) was used to model a short-path distillation process applied for removal of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in fish oil. Decontamination effect was assessed by measuring the level of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (DL-PCBs) and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs). The average reduction in chemical concentration of the individual PCDD, PCDF, DL-PCB and PBDE congeners was linearly dependent on the number of chlorine or bromine substitutions within each homologue group. DL-PCB and PBDE congeners could also be separated based on ortho-substitution. The quantitative structure properties relationships (QSPR) were combined with process parameters to establish response surface models for each homologue congener group based on partial least squares regression (PLSR). Cross validated predictive ability of the models was in the 4-9% range. Generally high temperature, low feed rate and WF addition improved the decontamination efficiency. The WHO-PCDD/F-PCB-TEQ level could be reduced by up to 98% based on the best experimental settings with residual concentration considerably below present maximum permitted levels in European food and feed legislations.

E-waste management is a serious challenge across developed, transition, and developing countries because of the consumer society and the globalization process. E-waste is a fast-growing waste stream which needs more attention of international organizations, governments, and local authorities in order to improve the current waste management practices. The book reveals the pollution side of this waste stream with critical implications on the environment and public health, and also it points out the resource side which must be further developed under the circular economy framework with respect to safety regulations. In this context, complicated patterns at the global scale emerge under legal and illegal e-waste trades. The linkages between developed and developing countries and key issues of e-waste management sector are further examined in the book.

The purpose of this paper is to examine the results of the research carried out over the last few decades on the history
of frataraka rulers and to attempt to provide a reliable chronology by analyzing the numismatic data combined with the
very little literary evidence and the relevant archaeological dicoveries in Persis. Subsequently, I shall review the different
frataraka coinages in the hope of finding new insights into the regnal sequence of fratarakas. The result will be used to
link securely the numismatic data with the two other above-mentioned sources of information.

- by Luca Nizzetto and +1
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- Soil, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Multidisciplinary, Environmental science and technology

Bioaccumulation of chemicals by aquatic organisms, especially fish, mussels and Daphnia, is an important criterion in risk assessment. Bioconcentration from water must be considered in context with toxicity, biotic and abiotic degradation and other physical-chemical factors in order to protect the freshwater and marine environments with their organisms. Furthermore, it is necessary to prevent human exposure from contaminated aquatic food, such as fish, mussels, and oysters. This review outlines the factors such as toxic effects, bioavailability, chemical concentration in the water, pH of the water, and lipid content of the organisms, which are known to affect the bioconcentration of chemicals in aquatic organisms. Quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSARs) for predicting the bioconcentration potential of chemicals in algae, Daphnia, mussels, and fish are presented. Specific classes of organic chemicals, such as endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), super-hydrophobic persistent organic pollutants (POPs) (2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, octachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin, Mirex, and Toxaphene), tetrachlorobenzyltoluenes (TCBTs), polybrominated benzenes (PBBz), polybrominated biphenyls (PBBs), polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), polychlorinated diphenylethers (PCDEs), nitro musk compounds (NMCs), polycyclic musk fragrances (PMFs), and sun screen agents (SSAs) are critically reviewed and discussed. Furthermore, predictions for some metabolites, especially hydroxylated aromatics, of these chemical classes which may have endocrine-disrupting effects are made. The selected bioconcentration factors on a wet weight basis (BCF W ) and on a lipid basis (BCF L ) in aquatic organisms, such as algae (Chlorella sp.), water fleas (Daphnia sp.), mussels (Mytilus edulis), oysters (Crassostrea vir-* Disclaimer: This document has been reviewed by the Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics, US Environmental Protection Agency and approved for publication. The views expressed are those of the author and approval does not signify that the contents necessarily reflect the views and policies of the Agency nor does mention of tradenames or commercial products constitute endorsement or recommendation for use. ginica), and different fish species, of these chemicals are presented in tables. Furthermore, the chemical structure, physico-chemical properties, such as selected log K OW values, and other data are compiled. In the cases where no bioconcentration factors (BCFs) were published the BCF values of chemicals in fish and mussels were predicted from QSARs using the n-octanol/ water partition coefficient (K OW ) as the basic parameter. A new classification scheme for organic chemicals by their hydrophobicity (log K OW ) and by their worst-case bioconcentration factors on a lipid basis (BCF L ) is also presented.

The Toolkit is divided into five main modules, as described below. Figure 1 illustrates how the content of the modules fits into the overall approach to POP-contaminated site management recommended by this Toolkit.
Module 1, Policy and Legal Issues, outlines the basic legal and policy issues for POPs, and explains the fundamental principles being used to set regulation and to develop criteria and permissible levels of POPs. Areas of discussion include site inventory initiatives, land acquisition and disposal, permissible levels of contaminants, toxic tort actions, risk-based remediation goals, and the key role of sustainability in site remediation. The module also covers how remediation can be facilitated by tax and non-tax incentives, institutional arrangements and inter-sectoral collaboration.
Module 2, Conducting a Site Investigation, provides guidelines for investigating a potentially contaminated site through two distinct phases. A preliminary site investigation (PSI), which is made up of two stages (PSI Stage 1 and PSI Stage 2), confirms whether a site is contaminated or not, and a detailed site investigation (DSI) delineates the extent of the contamination. The site investigation process is illustrated in case studies from Nigeria and Ghana.
Module 3, Assessing Site Risks, provides guidelines for assessing the human health risks of a POP-contaminated site. It outlines two different approaches to risk assessment. The generic Tier 1 assessment uses the information collected during the site investigation to compare contaminant concentrations against the recommended values for soil and groundwater. The more complex Site-Specific Risk Assessment identifies a site's contaminants, exposure pathways and receptors, which can then be used as the basis for developing a risk management process in situations when complete remediation is not a viable option for a contaminated site.
Module 4, Managing Contaminated Sites, provides guidance on developing a strategy for contaminated site management. It presents risk management options to assist users in selecting the best option for a specific site and a classification/categorization system for prioritizing sites for remediation, according to risk. The module introduces a simple screening matrix system as a low-cost tool to help in the selection of the appropriate technique for a specific site according to its local situation. The application of the screening system is illustrated through three case studies. The technology and limitations of different remediation techniques are summarized, and the module concludes with a discussion of post-remediation site monitoring requirements.
Module 5, Costing and Financing Site Remediation, provides guidance to analysts in the economic analysis of POP–related environmental policy issues. A carefully thought-out cost-benefit analysis of remediation options (as outlined step by step in this module), and the selection of the most appropriate financing mechanism, will greatly enhance the likelihood of success in the implementation of POP-contaminated site management and control policy.

The release of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) into the environment is an issue of global concern, as the chemicals are stable over a prolonged period resulting in their accumulation in many animals and plants. Although POPs are banned in several countries, many chemicals have been proposed as POP candidates to be added to the existing compounds as defined by the United Nations Stockholm Convention committee. To address the safe disposal and clean-up of such chemicals, new, and especially cost-effective, remediation technologies for POPs are urgently required. This review focuses on existing POPs and the types of remediation processes available for their removal. Particular attention is paid towards photocatalysis using nanocatalysts in this review, due to their effectiveness towards POP degradation, technological feasibility, and energy and cost-efficiency. The underlying principles and the key mechanisms of the photocatalysts based on TiO 2 based materials, metal oxides, light-assisted Fenton systems, framework materials e.g. metal-organic frameworks and polyoxometalates, including metal-free and hybrid photocatalysts for POPs cleanup are described for advance applications in solving the POPs contamination in

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been used in a wide range of agricultural and industrial commodities, resulting in vigorous deterioration of environment and human health. A number of studies on the occurrence of POPs confirm their presence in various environmental compartments and human body. In order to deal with this global concern, India has recently prepared the National Implementation Plan (NIP) of the Stockholm Convention. Common beliefs point at India as a hot spot of POP contamination and human exposure; however no systematic analysis was ever performed so far considering all available past data on POP occurrence. This review aims to examine the distribution pattern of POPs in multicompartment environment and human samples, meta-analysis of time trends in exposure levels to environment and humans, and cross country comparison of POP contamination with China. Based on this review, it can be concluded that the Indian environment and human population are highly contaminated by DDTs and HCHs; however scarcity of data on other POPs makes it challenging to assess their nationwide human and environmental exposure. No evidence of a general decline in DDT and HCH residues in the environment and human body come out from the meta-analysis of time trend. While comparing contamination levels between India and China, tendency towards decline in POP contamination is visible in China, unlike India.

- by Luca Nizzetto
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- Persistent Organic Pollutants, India, Literature Review, Stockholm Convention
- by Giuseppe Colla
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- Horticulture, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Photosynthesis, Pepper

The non-occupational exposure to brominated flame retardants, and other persistent organic pollutants (POPs) was studied by collecting human breast milk samples from mothers residing in Thohoyandou area, a rural district in the Limpopo Province, northern part of South Africa (SA). Of all collected samples to be analysed (n=28), those with large enough milk volumes, (n=14) were quantified for polybrominated diphenyl

- by Marie Aune and +2
- •
- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Environmental Monitoring, Multidisciplinary, South Africa

Filamentous fungi that produce mycotoxins also
demonstrate the ability to degrade a wide variety of naturally
occurring and anthropogenically generated hazardous wastes.
Hence, these are emerging as excellent candidates for bioremediation.
Their mycelia exhibit the robustness of adapting to
highly restrictive environmental conditions often experienced
in the presence of persistent pollutants, which makes them
more useful compared to other microbes. However, it now
appears that several regulatory factors that govern mycotoxin
synthesis in these toxigenic strains also regulate their bioremediation
abilities. To this end, mycoremediation and mycotoxin
synthesis have been thoroughly but independently investigated;
hence, much less is understood about the overlaps
between the two processes. This review aims to shed light on
this critical knowledge gap and provide some useful insights
into the future research that might overcome the challenges
associated with these shared regulatory modules. This will
enable the harnessing of the full potential of mycoremediation
by minimizing mycotoxin contamination.

- by Ola Gomaa
- •
- Mycology, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Biosorption, Bioremediation

A new method is described for the simultaneous analysis of nitro and polycyclic musks in air samples. Additional considerations are given to the aspects of sample preparation and blank problems. For the first time concentration levels of synthetic musks in selected Norwegian air samples were determined. In a preliminary investigation using ambient air samples prepared for the determination of persistent organic pollutants, musk xylene concentrations were between 8 and 19 3 pg / m . A new sample preparation for the simultaneous analysis of polycyclic and nitro musks is presented. Both GC-electron impact (EI) MS and GC-negative ion chemical ionisation (NICI) MS were compared as detection methods. GC-EI-MS is to be preferred for the determination of synthetic musks since GC-NICI-MS is not sensitive enough for the determination for polycyclic musks. Blank problems occurred which have to be carefully considered during the whole work-up procedure. One indoor air sample was taken in the laboratory where the clean-up of the samples took place to evaluate laboratory air contamination. A concentration for 1, 3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclo[g]-2-ben-3 zopyrane of 2470 pg / m was found using gas chromatographic separation coupled with mass spectrometric detection in the electron impact mode (GC-low-resolution EI-MS). A set of four ambient air samples taken nearby the institute facilities was 3 analysed for both nitro and polycyclic musks. For polycyclic musks, concentrations up to 130 pg / m (GC-EI-MS) were 3 determined and for musk xylene a concentration maximum in ambient air samples 54 pg / m (low resolution EI-MS) was found. Critical considerations about laboratory contamination, clean-up and analysis of ambient air samples are given.

- by Roland Kallenborn
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- Engineering, Technology, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Sample Preparation
- by Cyril Feidt
- •
- Criminal Justice, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Animal Production, Toxicity

I am often reminded of the famous saying of Goethe: “Vedi Napoli e poi muori! - See Naples and die!”. Sadly, Naples is now confronted with a number of serious, ongoing problems with a need to alleviate pressure on the worsening environment. One serious problem facing the environment is the presence of the potentially hazardous persistent organic pollutants (POPs), although few systematic studies at regional scale have been conducted.
In this study, samples of soil, air, and bulk deposition were collected in Naples metropolitan area (NMA) to characterize the status of POPs, including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The results obtained showed that most of these compounds are pervasive in all the studied environmental matrices, especially in some hotspot areas, such as the Bagnoli Brownfield Site and the infamous “Triangle of the Death”, where unwanted ecological risk conditions for PAHs and Endosulfan were determined, respectively. The interactional complexity between urban and the surrounding rural areas was also confirmed, as is the role that urban areas play in the migration and transformation process of POPs. High urban-rural gradients for atmospheric PAHs and PCBs were observed in the NMA, and the urban areas were identified as the emission source of these contaminants. Similarly, the OCP residues,
historically originated from the nearby agricultural regions, experience long-term soil re-emission and continuously influence the connected urban environment via atmospheric transport processes.

In this study, wastewater from the output of three different secondary treatment facilities (Activated Sludge, Moving Bed Bioreactor and Coagulation-Flocculation) present in the municipal wastewater treatment plant of Vidy, Lausanne (Switzerland), was further treated with various oxidation processes (UV, UV/H2O2, solar irradiation, Fenton, solar photo-Fenton), at laboratory scale. For this assessment, 6 organic micropollutants in agreement with the new environmental legislation requirements in Switzerland were selected (Carbamazepine, Clarithromycin, Diclofenac, Metoprolol, Benzotriazole, Mecoprop) and monitored throughout the treatment. Also, the overall removal of the organic load was assessed. After each secondary treatment, the efficiency of the AOPs increased in the following order: Coagulation-Flocculation<Activated Sludge<Moving Bed Bioreactor, in almost all cases. From the different combinations tested, municipal wastewater subjected to biological treatment followed by UV/H2O2 resulted in the highest elimination levels. Wastewater previously treated by physicochemical treatment demonstrated considerably inhibited micropollutant degradation rates. The degradation kinetics were determined, yielding: k (UV)<k (UV/H2O2) and k (Fenton)<k (solar irradiation)<k (photo-Fenton). Finally, the evolution of global pollution parameters (COD & TOC elimination) was followed and the degradation pathways for the effluent organic matter are discussed. © 2015 Elsevier Ltd.

- by Stefanos Giannakis and +1
- •
- Environmental Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Environmental Science, Advanced Oxidation Processes

In this review, a wide array of bioaccumulation markers and biomarkers, used to demonstrate exposure to and effects of environmental contaminants, has been discussed in relation to their feasibility in environmental risk assessment (ERA). Fish bioaccumulation markers may be applied in order to elucidate the aquatic behavior of environmental contaminants, as bioconcentrators to identify certain substances with low water levels and to assess exposure of aquatic organisms. Since it is virtually impossible to predict the fate of xenobiotic substances with simple partitioning models, the complexity of bioaccumulation should be considered, including toxicokinetics, metabolism, biota-sediment accumulation factors (BSAFs), organ-specific bioaccumulation and bound residues. Since it remains hard to accurately predict bioaccumulation in fish, even with highly sophisticated models, analyses of tissue levels are required. The most promising fish bioaccumulation markers are body burdens of persistent organic pollutants, like PCBs and DDTs. Since PCDD and PCDF levels in fish tissues are very low as compared with the sediment levels, their value as bioaccumulation markers remains questionable. Easily biodegradable compounds, such as PAHs and chlorinated phenols, do not tend to accumulate in fish tissues in quantities that reflect the exposure. Semipermeable membrane devices (SPMDs) have been successfully used to mimic bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic substances in aquatic organisms. In order to assess exposure to or effects of environmental pollutants on aquatic ecosystems, the following suite of fish biomarkers may be examined: biotransformation enzymes (phase I and II), oxidative stress parameters, biotransformation products, stress proteins, metallothioneins (MTs), MXR proteins, hematological parameters, immunological parameters, reproductive and endocrine parameters, genotoxic parameters, neuromuscular parameters, physiological, histological and morphological parameters. All fish biomarkers are evaluated for their potential use in ERA programs, based upon six criteria that have been proposed in the present paper. This evaluation demonstrates that phase I enzymes (e.g. hepatic EROD and CYP1A), biotransformation products (e.g. biliary PAH metabolites), reproductive parameters (e.g. plasma VTG) and genotoxic parameters (e.g. hepatic DNA adducts) are currently the most valuable fish biomarkers for ERA. The use of biomonitoring methods in the control strategies for chemical pollution has several advantages over chemical monitoring. Many of the biological measurements form the only way of integrating effects on a large number of individual and interactive processes in aquatic organisms. Moreover, biological and biochemical effects may link the bioavailability of the compounds of interest with their concentration at target organs and intrinsic toxicity. The limitations of biomonitoring, such as confounding factors that are not related to pollution, should be carefully considered when interpreting biomarker data. Based upon this overview there is little doubt that measurements of bioaccumulation and biomarker responses in fish from contaminated sites offer great promises for providing information that can contribute to environmental monitoring programs designed for various aspects of ERA. #

- by Jonny Beyer and +1
- •
- Environmental Toxicology, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Environmental Monitoring, Aquatic Ecosystem

- by Ron Oost
- •
- Environmental Toxicology, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Bioaccumulation, Biomarkers

Studies on residue levels and accumulation profiles of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in human adipose tissues of Korean populations are scarce. In this study, concentrations and accumulation features of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) were measured in adipose tissues of Korean women age 40-68 years. The highest concentrations were found for PCBs and DDTs, which were 1-2 orders of magnitude greater than the concentrations of hexachlorocyclohexanes, chlordanes, and PBDEs. The concentrations of PCBs and OCPs were lower than those reported for other countries.

- by Fernando Carvalho
- •
- Food Safety, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Food Production, Pesticide Residues

The amount of different persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the input of waste incinerators was compared to that in the output. Three cases were considered: a rotary kiln incinerating hazardous waste, a grate furnace incinerating municipal solid waste (MSW) and the same grate furnace co-incinerating plastics of waste of electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) and automotive shredder residue (ASR) with MSW. The mass balance for PCBs in the rotary kiln indicates that these POPs are destroyed effectively during incineration. The grate furnace can be a sink or source of PCDD/Fs and PCBs depending on the concentrations in the incinerated waste. In order to compare the total amount of POPs in input and output, a methodology was developed whereby the amount of POPs was weighed according to minimal risk doses (MRDs) or cancer potency factors. For both incinerators the PCDD/Fs, PCBs and polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are the main contributors to total weighed POP output. In MSW, the PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs and polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) are the main contributors to the weighed POP input. The ratios of the weighed POP-input over -output clearly indicate that the rotary kiln incinerating hazardous waste is a weighed POP sink. The grate furnace incinerating MSW is a weighed POP sink or source depending on the POP-concentrations in the waste, but the difference between output and input is rather limited. When e.g. ASR and plastics of WEEE, containing high concentrations of PBDEs and PCBs, are coincinerated in the grate furnace, it is clearly a weighed POP sink.

- by Carlo Vandecasteele and +1
- •
- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Hazardous Waste, Multidisciplinary, Municipal Solid Waste

In Asian developing countries, large amounts of municipal wastes are dumped daily in open dumping sites without proper management. This practice may cause several adverse environmental consequences and increased health risk to local communities. To elucidate contamination by persistent organic pollutants (POPs)-including dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs), hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), chlordanes, hexachlorobenzene (HCB), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)-in such dumping sites, soil samples were collected from open dumping sites and respective control sites in Cambodia, India, and Vietnam from 1999 through 2001. Our results demonstrated that DDTs, PCBs, and HCHs were dominant contaminants in the dumping sites. However, the contamination pattern was not consistent, showing higher HCHs in India than in Cambodia and Vietnam. Interestingly, in all of the countries, extremely higher levels of POPs were observed in the dumping sites compared with those in the respective control sites, suggesting significant amplification of POP contamination in the dumping sites of Asian developing countries. Mean concentrations of DDTs and PCBs were 350 and 140 ng/g dry weight, respectively, in the dumping sites of Cambodia and 26 and 210 ng/g, respectively, in India. These residue levels were hundreds to thousands times higher than those in general soils, implying possible risk to human health of the local communities, especially to the rag pickers, including children who work in these sites to collect recyclable materials. Composition of DDT compounds suggested their recent use in populated areas, which in turn might have caused increased levels of DDTs in the open dumping sites. In addition, composition of HCH isomers revealed their different use pattern in different countries.

- by Pham Viet
- •
- Persistent Organic Pollutants, Developing Countries, Environmental Monitoring, Vietnam

Recent studies have added substantially to our knowledge of spatial and temporal trends of persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals in the Canadian Arctic marine ecosystem. This paper reviews the current state of knowledge of contaminants in marine biota in the Canadian Arctic and where possible, discusses biological effects. The geographic coverage of information on contaminants such as persistent organochlorines (OCs) (PCBs, DDT- and chlordane-related compounds, hexachlorocyclohexanes, toxaphene) and heavy metals (mercury, selenium, cadmium, lead) in tissues of marine mammal and sea birds is relatively complete. All major beluga, ringed seal and polar bear stocks along with several major sea bird colonies have been sampled and analysed for OC and heavy metal contaminants. Studies on contaminants in walrus are limited to Foxe Basin and northern Québec stocks, while migratory harp seals have only been studied recently at one location. Contaminant measurements in bearded seal, harbour seal, bowhead whale and killer whale tissues from the Canadian Arctic are very limited or non-existent. Many of the temporal trend data for contaminants in Canadian Arctic biota are confounded by changes in analytical methodology, as well as by variability due to age/size, or to dietary and population shifts. Despite this, studies of OCs in ringed seal blubber at Holman Island and in sea birds at Prince Leopold Island in Lancaster Sound show declining concentrations of PCBs and DDT-related compounds from the 1970s to 1980s then a levelling off during the 1980s and early 1990s. For other OCs, such as chlordane, HCH and toxaphene, limited data for the 1980s to early 1990s suggests few significant declines in concentrations in marine mammals or sea birds. Temporal trend studies of heavy metals in ringed seals and beluga found higher mean concentrations of mercury in more recent (1993/1994) samples than in earlier collections (1981–1984 in eastern Arctic, 1972–1973 in western Arctic) for both species. Rates of accumulation of mercury are also higher in present day animals than 10–20 years ago. Cadmium concentrations in the same animals (eastern Arctic only) showed no change over a 10-year period. No temporal trend data are available for metals in sea birds or polar bears. There have been major advances in knowledge of specific biomarkers in Canadian Arctic biota over the past few years. The species with the most significant risk of exposure to PCBs and OC pesticides may be the polar bear which, based on comparison with EROD activity in other marine mammals (beluga, ringed seal), appears to have elevated CYP1A-mediated activity. The MFO enzyme data for polar bear, beluga and seals suggest that even the relatively low levels of contaminants present in Arctic animals may not be without biological effects, especially during years of poor feeding.

- by Barry Hargrave
- •
- Marine Biology, Persistent Organic Pollutants, Multidisciplinary, Mammals