Portion Size Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Objective: It is often believed that people overeat the foods they like.We investigated whether environmental cues such as packaging and container size are so powerful that they can increase our intake of foods that are less palatable.... more

Objective: It is often believed that people overeat the foods they like.We investigated whether environmental cues such as packaging and container size are so powerful that they can increase our intake of foods that are less palatable.
Design, Setting, and Participants: In a 2 × 2 between-subjects design, 158 moviegoers in Philadelphia (57.6% male; 28.7 years) were randomly given a medium (120 g) or a large (240 g) container of free popcorn that was either fresh or stale (14 days old). Following the movie, consumption measures were taken, along with measures of perceived taste.
Outcome Measures and Results: Moviegoers who were given fresh popcorn ate 45.3% more popcorn when it was given to them in large containers.This container-size influence is so powerful that even when the popcorn was disliked , people still ate 33.6% more popcorn when eating from a large container than from a medium-size container.
Conclusions and Implications: Even when foods are not palatable, large packages and containers can lead to overeating. The silver lining of these findings may be that portion size can also be used to increase the consumption of less preferred healthful foods, such as raw vegetables.

Plate shapes and package sizes, lighting and layout, color and convenience: these are a few of hidden persuaders that can contribute to how much food a person eats. This review first posits that these environmental factors influence... more

Plate shapes and package sizes, lighting and layout, color and convenience: these are a few of hidden persuaders that can contribute to how much food a person eats. This review first posits that these environmental factors influence eating because they increase consumption norms and decrease consumption monitoring. Second, it suggests that simply increasing awareness and offering nutrition education will be disappointingly ineffective in changing mindless eating. Third, promising pilot results from the National Mindless Eating Challenge provide insights into helping move from mindless eating to mindlessly eating better.

Adapting Western meat consumption to health and sustainability challenges requires an overall reduction of industrially produced animal proteins plus a partial replacement by plant proteins. Combining insights on food, environment, and... more

Adapting Western meat consumption to health and sustainability challenges requires an overall reduction of industrially produced animal proteins plus a partial replacement by plant proteins. Combining insights on food, environment, and consumers, this paper aims to explore change strategies that may help to meet these challenges, such as promoting smaller portions of meat ("less"), smaller portions using meat raised in a more sustainable manner ("less but better"), smaller portions and eating more vegetable protein ("less and more varied"), and meatless meals with or without meat substitutes ("veggie-days"). The underlying logic of the strategies was clarified by analyzing dietary choices. A nationwide sample of 1083 Dutch consumers provided information on current eating practices and potential changes. The results show that strategies to change meat eating frequencies and meat portion sizes will appeal to overlapping but partly different segm...

Could smaller snack portions be similarly effective in decreasing cravings or feelings of hunger as larger portions? To answer this, three common snack foods – chocolate, apple pie, potato chips – were given to 104 participants as either... more

Could smaller snack portions be similarly effective in decreasing cravings or feelings of hunger as larger portions? To answer this, three common snack foods – chocolate, apple pie, potato chips – were given to 104 participants as either a small portion (x) or a substantially larger portion (5–10x). Results indicate that smaller portions satisfied one's ratings of hunger and craving similar to larger portions, but led to a mean intake that was significantly lower than in the large portion condition (with a difference of 103 calories). This suggests that 15 min after eating a considerably smaller snack, people will have eaten much less but will feel equally satisfied.

Baranowski T., Islam N., Douglass D., Dadabhoy H., Beltran A., Baranowski J., Thompson D., Cullen K.W. & Subar A.F. (2012) Food Intake Recording Software System, version 4 (FIRSSt4): a self-completed 24-h dietary recall for children. J... more

Baranowski T., Islam N., Douglass D., Dadabhoy H., Beltran A., Baranowski J., Thompson D., Cullen K.W. & Subar A.F. (2012) Food Intake Recording Software System, version 4 (FIRSSt4): a self-completed 24-h dietary recall for children. J Hum Nutr Diet. ABSTRACT: The Food Intake Recording Software System, version 4 (firsst4), is a web-based 24-h dietary recall (24 hdr) self-administered by children based on the Automated Self-Administered 24-h recall (ASA24) (a self-administered 24 hdr for adults). The food choices in firsst4 are abbreviated to include only those reported by children in US national surveys; and detailed food probe questions are simplified to exclude those that children could not be expected to answer (e.g. questions regarding food preparation and added fats). ASA24 and firsst4 incorporate 10 000+ food images, with up to eight images per food, to assist in portion size estimation. We review the formative research conducted during the development of firsst4. When complet...

Objective To determine whether people pour different amounts into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender ones. Design: College students practised pouring alcohol into a standard glass before pouring into larger glasses; bartenders... more

Objective To determine whether people pour different amounts into short, wide glasses than into tall, slender ones.
Design: College students practised pouring alcohol into a standard glass before pouring into larger glasses; bartenders poured alcohol for four mixed drinks either with no instructions or after being told to take their time.
Setting: University town and large city, United States. Participants: 198 college students and 86 bartenders. Main outcome measures Volume of alcohol poured into short, wide and tall, slender glasses.
Results: Aiming to pour a “shot” of alcohol (1.5 ounces, 44.3 ml), both students and bartenders poured more into short, wide glasses than into tall slender glasses (46.1 ml v 44.7 ml and 54.6 ml v 46.4 ml, respectively). Practice reduced the tendency to overpour, but not for short, wide glasses. Despite an average of six years of experience, bartenders poured 20.5% more into short, wide glasses than tall, slender ones; paying careful attention reduced but did not eliminate the effect.
Conclusions: To avoid overpouring, use tall, narrow glasses or ones on which the alcohol level is premarked. To avoid underestimating the amount of alcohol consumed, studies using self reports of standard drinks should ask about the shape of the glass

People eat meals rather than nutrients or food groups. Plate size may influence meal size, meal composition, and food type. To examine effects of plate size on meals, we developed a method we label plate mapping. A quasi-experimental... more

People eat meals rather than nutrients or food groups. Plate size may influence meal size, meal composition, and food type. To examine effects of plate size on meals, we developed a method we label plate mapping. A quasi-experimental study asked university students to accurately draw what they would like to eat for dinner on either a 9" or 11" paper plate. Coding plate drawings for total meal size revealed that students drew an average of 26% more food on larger plates. When plates were coded for meal composition we found that the biggest three food portions drawn by students were bigger on 11” plates, with 70% of the overall difference in food area occurring in the biggest food. Participants drew bigger portions of vegetables on larger plates, while other food types showed little change in mean size. Gender moderated plate sensitivity for food types: women drew 36% bigger vegetable portions than men on larger plates. Smaller plates may lead to smaller meal sizes, but plate size may differentially influence composition of meals for men and women. These findings suggest plate mapping can be used to reflect meal conceptualizations and assess sensitivity to plate size.

In the present study, we examined how well adolescents (12-13 years) are able to select the correct dietary aid portion sizes after having been shown different food items. We also evaluated the effectiveness of two-dimensional life-size... more

In the present study, we examined how well adolescents (12-13 years) are able to select the correct dietary aid portion sizes after having been shown different food items. We also evaluated the effectiveness of two-dimensional life-size drawings and three-dimensional food models, used as dietary aids in this process. Fifty black children and 42 white children from Johannesburg participated in the study (N = 92). Trained interviewers individually tested each child following a prescribed sequence, throughout. Each participant was shown a plate of actual food of a pre-determined weight. The participant was required to select a two-dimensional drawing, and thereafter a three-dimensional food model, which most closely resembled the real food portion. In this manner, portion size estimation was evaluated with respect to 11 different food items. Correlations between nutrients calculated from actual weight of food portions and estimates ranged from 0.842 to 0.994 (P < 0.0001), indicating...

Does the size of a plate influence the serving of all items equally, or does it influence the serving of some foods – such as meat versus vegetables – differently? To examine this question, we used the new method of plate mapping, where... more

Does the size of a plate influence the serving of all items equally, or does it influence the serving of some foods – such as meat versus vegetables – differently? To examine this question, we used the new method of plate mapping, where people drew a meal on a paper plate to examine sensitivity to small versus large three-compartment divided plates in portion size and meal composition in a sample of 109 university students. The total drawn meal area was 37% bigger on large plates than small plates, which showed that the portion of plate coverage did not differ by plate size. Men and women drew bigger vegetable portions and men drew bigger meat portions on large plates when compared to small plates. These results suggest that men and women are differentially sensitive to plate size for overall meal size and for meal composition. Implications for decreasing portion size and improving meal balance are that plate size may influence portion size and change the proportions of foods served.

Previous research has suggested that manipulations of plate size can have a direct impact on perception of food intake, measured by estimated fullness and intake. The present study, involving 570 individuals across Canada, China, Korea,... more

Previous research has suggested that manipulations of plate size can have a direct impact on perception of food intake, measured by estimated fullness and intake. The present study, involving 570 individuals across Canada, China, Korea, and New Zealand, is the first empirical study to investigate cultural influences on perception of food portion as a function of plate size. The respondents viewed photographs of ten culturally diverse dishes presented on large (27 cm) and small (23 cm) plates, and then rated their estimated usual intake and expected fullness after consuming the dish, using 100-point visual analog scales. The data were analysed with a mixed-model ANCOVA controlling for individual BMI, liking and familiarity of the presented food. The results showed clear cultural differences: (1) manipulations of the plate size had no effect on the expected fullness or the estimated intake of the Chinese and Korean respondents, as opposed to significant effects in Canadians and New Ze...

ObjectiveAccurate estimation of food portion size is of paramount importance in dietary studies. We have developed a small, chest-worn electronic device called eButton which automatically takes pictures of consumed foods for objective... more

ObjectiveAccurate estimation of food portion size is of paramount importance in dietary studies. We have developed a small, chest-worn electronic device called eButton which automatically takes pictures of consumed foods for objective dietary assessment. From the acquired pictures, the food portion size can be calculated semi-automatically with the help of computer software. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the accuracy of the calculated food portion size (volumes) from eButton pictures.DesignParticipants wore an eButton during their lunch. The volume of food in each eButton picture was calculated using software. For comparison, three raters estimated the food volume by viewing the same picture. The actual volume was determined by physical measurement using seed displacement.SettingDining room and offices in a research laboratory.SubjectsSeven lab member volunteers.ResultsImages of 100 food samples (fifty Western and fifty Asian foods) were collected and each food volume ...

Availability and consumption of fruits and vegetables were assessed in peri-urban households in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Caregivers of 400 randomly selected grade 6 and 7 learners were interviewed using a questionnaire that... more

Availability and consumption of fruits and vegetables were assessed in peri-urban households in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Caregivers of 400 randomly selected grade 6 and 7 learners were interviewed using a questionnaire that included unquantified food frequency questions. Using a repeated 24-h dietary recall, dietary intake was quantified for learners, caregivers and 2- to 5-year-old children in the household. Usual household fruit and vegetable consumption was expressed over three Living Standard Measure (LSM) categories. Average per capita intake of fruit and/or vegetables was 99 g for 2- to 5-year-old children and 124 g for caregivers. For consumers, fruits and/or vegetables contributed towards total dietary intake of fibre (16–21%), calcium (13–21%), vitamin A (27–31%) and vitamin C (47–62%). For households not consuming fruits (n = 297) and vegetables (n = 178) daily, cost was the major constraint (≥75%). Of all households, 52% had fruit trees and 25% had a vegetable garden. Animals destroying vegetables was the major constraint to 59% of vegetable growers. Household consumption of fruits and vegetables increased over the LSM categories. Caregivers in the higher LSM group more likely used printed material for information on healthy eating, had fruit trees, were confident about vegetable gardening and sold some of their produce. To enable peri-urban populations of low socio-economic status to consume more frequently a bigger variety of fruits and vegetables, the cost of purchasing these food items needs to be addressed by government and business sector. Households should further receive support to overcome constraints which hamper the success of home gardens.

In settings such as workplaces there is a growing acceptance that the food provided has a significant impact on health and wellbeing. This is a captive environment where the overall contribution of the meal served could be an important... more

In settings such as workplaces there is a growing acceptance that the food provided has a significant impact on health and wellbeing. This is a captive environment where the overall contribution of the meal served could be an important element of the overall diet and represents an under researched area. Despite growing demand, little information is available; time pressure when making food choice alongside the challenge of understanding information provided can act as barriers for healthy selection and can also decrease confidence in the food system. We would also argue that the fundamental human right of informing consumers what they are eating is not currently being addressed and is underscored. This study used focus groups to explore criteria that motivate peoples' food choice in a workplace foodservice setting. Thematic analysis was applied to categorise data according to frequently occurring responses. Data were collected from four focus groups in Germany and the UK with a ...

Previous research has shown that women eating small portions of food (vs. eating big portions) are perceived as more feminine, whereas men eating large portions are perceived as more masculine. The specific type of food items have also... more

Previous research has shown that women eating small portions of food (vs. eating big portions) are perceived as more feminine, whereas men eating large portions are perceived as more masculine. The specific type of food items have also been shown to carry connotations for gender stereotyping. In addition, matching the co-eater's food quantity is also a means to ingratiate him or her. Thus, a potential motivational conflict between gender identity expression and ingratiation arises when people eat in opposite-sex dyads. Scholars have, thus far, focused their attention on one of these two dimensions at a time, and rarely in relation to the co-eaters' sex. The present study investigated, through a restaurant scenario, the way in which women and men, when asked to imagine having lunch in dyads, combine food choice and quantity regulation as a function of the co-eater's sex. Results showed that participants use the quantity dimension to communicate gender identity, and the fo...

ObjectiveThe aim of the present study was to gain insight into (i) processed snack-food availability, (ii) processed snack-food salience and (iii) the size of dinnerware among households with overweight gatekeepers. Moreover, associations... more

ObjectiveThe aim of the present study was to gain insight into (i) processed snack-food availability, (ii) processed snack-food salience and (iii) the size of dinnerware among households with overweight gatekeepers. Moreover, associations between gatekeepers’ characteristics and in-home observations were determined.DesignA cross-sectional observation of home food environments was conducted as part of a baseline measurement of a larger study.SettingHome food environments of overweight and obese gatekeepers in the Netherlands.SubjectsHousehold gatekeepers (n278). Mean household size of the gatekeepers was 3·0 (sd1·3) persons. Mean age of the gatekeepers was 45·7 (sd9·2) years, 34·9 % were overweight and 65·1 % were obese. Of the gatekeepers, 20·9 % had a low level of education and 42·7 % had a high level of education.ResultsIn 70 % of the households, eight or more packages of processed snack foods were present. In 54 % of the households, processed snack foods were stored close to non-...

Both portion size and energy density (ED) have substantial effects on intake; however, their combined effects on preschool children's intake have not been examined when multiple foods are varied at a meal. We tested the effects on... more

Both portion size and energy density (ED) have substantial effects on intake; however, their combined effects on preschool children's intake have not been examined when multiple foods are varied at a meal. We tested the effects on intake of varying the portion size and ED of lunches served to children in their usual eating environment. In a crossover design, lunch was served in 3 childcare centers once a week for 6weeks to 120 children aged 3-5y. Across the 6 meals, all items were served at 3 levels of portion size (100%, 150%, or 200%) and 2 levels of ED (100% or 142%). The lunch menu had either lower-ED or higher-ED versions of chicken, macaroni and cheese, vegetables, applesauce, ketchup, and milk. Children's ratings of the foods indicated that the lower-ED and higher-ED meals were similarly well liked. The total weight of food and milk consumed at meals was increased by serving larger portions (P<0.0001) but was unaffected by varying the ED (P=0.22). Meal energy intak...

The portion size of foods and beverages offered at meals has been shown to significantly affect human food intake. While portion size effects appear to be fairly robust across studies in adults, findings from studies in children are... more

The portion size of foods and beverages offered at meals has been shown to significantly affect human food intake. While portion size effects appear to be fairly robust across studies in adults, findings from studies in children are generally more variable and do not reliably predict a significant portion size effect. Eating behaviors are still forming at a young age and individual differences in children's response to portion size will depend upon genetic predisposition interacting with the child's environment. The aim of this review is to present and discuss evidence that innate controls of appetite and eating, which involve genes that encode key hormones and neuropeptides implicated in processes of satiety and satiation, may differentially affect meal size. We also present evidence that children's response to portion size is learned and this is in turn shaped by upbringing, the early family and home environment. The review will conclude with a conceptual model that il...

Labels such as 'Large' or 'Super-size' are often used to describe portion sizes. How do these normative labels influence consumer choice and how much they ultimately either consume or waste? Although one might believe that firms use... more

Labels such as 'Large' or 'Super-size' are often used to describe portion sizes. How do these normative labels influence consumer choice and how much they ultimately either consume or waste? Although one might believe that firms use normative labels to impact choice behavior through loss aversion, a field experiment shows consumer's willingness to pay is inconsistent with a loss aversion explanation. Although portions were clearly visible, individuals appeared to use the labels as objective information about their size. Importantly, a second study showed these labels also led people to eat less when food was given a larger sounding name than a smaller name (double vs. regular; regular vs. half-size). If labels are used as size information, policies governing normative names could help reduce food consumption or reduce waste.

This study evaluates the healthfulness of the meals offered to and consumed by low-income Brazilians in Popular Restaurants (PR). It is a cross-sectional, exploratory study. The final sample includes 36 PRs, respecting the stratification... more

This study evaluates the healthfulness of the meals offered to and consumed by low-income Brazilians in Popular Restaurants (PR). It is a cross-sectional, exploratory study. The final sample includes 36 PRs, respecting the stratification criteria for each of the five Brazilian regions. To identify the quantity and quality of food consumption, consumers' meals are evaluated. The sample calculation uses a minimum of 41 consumers in each PR. Consumption evaluation is carried out by weighing and direct observation of the meal that each consumer served to his plate. Each dish of the meals had its Technical preparation files (TPF) developed by observing the production and weighing all the ingredients. Evaluations of Energy density (ED), meal's weight components and sodium composition are conducted. Plate's composition is compared to "My plate" guidelines United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). The final sample includes 1771 low-income Brazilians consumers. Th...

Some of the main causes of mortality and morbidity among the developed countries – such as the cardiovascular, neurologicaland oncologic diseases – are deeply associated with modifiable risk factors. Primordial/primary prevention... more

Some of the main causes of mortality and morbidity among the developed countries – such as the cardiovascular, neurologicaland oncologic diseases – are deeply associated with modifiable risk factors. Primordial/primary prevention strategies that alter our environment can have an impact on these risk factors. The authors of this Cochrane systematic review sought evidence from randomized controlled trials to study the effect of the size of portions, packages, dishes and cups, as well as their respective formats, on the consumption and selection of food, alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages and tobacco products. Overall, this review concludes that the choice of larger portions results in an increased consumption in food, non-alcoholic beverages and tobacco.

Using self-refilling soup bowls, this study examined wether visual cues related to portion size can influence intake volume without altering either estimated intake or satiation. Fifty-four participants (BMI, 17.3 to 36.0 kg/m^2; 18 to 46... more

Using self-refilling soup bowls, this study examined wether visual cues related to portion size can influence intake volume without altering either estimated intake or satiation. Fifty-four participants (BMI, 17.3 to 36.0 kg/m^2; 18 to 46 years of age) were recruited to participate in a study involving soup. The experiment was a between-subject design with two visibility levels: 1) an accurate visual cue of a food portion (normal bowl) vs. 2) a biased visual cue (self-refilling bowl). The soup apparatus was housed in a modified restaurant-style table in which two of four bowls slowly and imperceptibly refilled as their contents were consumed. Outcomes included intake volume, intake estimation, consumption monitoring, and satiety. Participants who were unknowingly eating from self-refilling bowls ate more soup [14.7 ± 8.4 vs. 8.5 ± 6.1 oz; F(1,52) = 8.99; p &lt; 0.01] than those eating from normal soup bowls. However, despite consuming 73% more, they did not believe they had consumed more, not did they perceive themselves as more sated than those eating from normal bowls. This was unaffected by BMI. These findings are consistent with the notion that the amount of food on a plate or bowl increases intake because it influences consumption norms and expectations and it lessens one&#39;s reliance on self-monitoring. It seems that people use their to count calories and not their stomachs. The importance of having salient, accurate visual cues can play an important role in the prevention of unintentional overeating.

ObjectiveTo assess the mean package size and manufacturer-recommended serving size of sweet beverages available in four high-income countries: Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand.DesignCross-sectional surveys.SettingThe two... more

ObjectiveTo assess the mean package size and manufacturer-recommended serving size of sweet beverages available in four high-income countries: Australia, Canada, the Netherlands and New Zealand.DesignCross-sectional surveys.SettingThe two largest supermarket chains of each country in 2012/2013.SubjectsIndividual pack size (IPS) drinks (n891) and bulk pack size (BPS) drinks (n1904).ResultsFor all IPS drinks, the mean package size was larger than the mean serving size (mean (sd)=412 (157) ml and 359 (159) ml, respectively). The mean (sd) package size of IPS drinks was significantly different for all countries (range: Australia=370 (149) ml to New Zealand=484 (191) ml;P<0·01). The mean (sd) package size of Dutch BPS drinks (1313 (323) ml) was significantly smaller compared with the other countries (New Zealand=1481 (595) ml, Australia=1542 (595) ml, Canada=1550 (434) ml;P<0·01). The mean (sd) serving size of BPS drinks was significantly different across all countries (range: Neth...

The development of healthy food portion sizes among families is deemed critical to childhood weight management; yet little is known about the interacting factors influencing parents' portion control behaviours. This study aimed to use... more

The development of healthy food portion sizes among families is deemed critical to childhood weight management; yet little is known about the interacting factors influencing parents' portion control behaviours. This study aimed to use two synergistic theoretical models of behaviour: the COM-B model (Capability, Opportunity, Motivation - Behaviour) and Theoretical Domains Framework (TDF) to identify a broad spectrum of theoretically derived influences on parents' portion control behaviours including examination of affective and habitual influences often excluded from prevailing theories of behaviour change. Six focus groups exploring family weight management comprised of one with caseworkers (n = 4), four with parents of overweight children (n = 14) and one with parents of healthy weight children (n = 8). A thematic analysis was performed across the dataset where the TDF/COM-B were used as coding frameworks. To achieve the target behaviour, the behavioural analysis revealed t...