Secondary Traumatic Stress Research Papers (original) (raw)

The COVID-19 pandemic forces frontline health-care workers to make difficult medical decisions that may result in moral injury. Understanding the extent to which physicians, nurses, and other health-care workers experience moral injury while working in a pandemic is of critical importance to establish preventative measures and trauma-informed treatment. A national sample of health-care workers (n
109) participated in the study. The results of a multiple regression analysis indicated secondary traumatic stress was significantly associated with moral injury. Contrary to existing literature, the role of burnout
and compassion fatigue in this study was nonsignificant. Mental health professionals may reduce treatment barriers by offering flexible sessions, nontraditional hours, and short-term interventions through tele-mental health platforms to support health-care workers experiencing trauma symptoms.

- by
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- Trauma, Burnout, Moral Injury, Secondary Traumatic Stress
- by James Caringi
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- Family Strengths, Emotional Labor, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Objective: A systematic review was conducted to examine effects of indicated interventions to reduce symptoms of secondary traumatic stress (STS) experienced by mental health workers. Method: Systematic review methods were employed to search, retrieve, select, and analyze studies that met study inclusion criteria. Results: Over 4,000 citations were reviewed, 159 full-text reports were screened, and two studies were fully coded and determined to be ineligible. No studies met criteria for inclusion in this review. Discussion: There is compelling evidence of psychological effects of working with trauma victims; however, no rigorous evidence meeting eligibility criteria was found to inform how to intervene most effectively with mental health workers who experience symptoms of STS. While it is important to provide effective interventions to helpers who may be experiencing symptoms related to secondary trauma, it seems apparent that there is yet more we need to do in order to advance efforts in evaluating the outcomes of practices currently being used and under development.

- by M. Bercier
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- Social Work, Vicarious Trauma, Systematic review, Secondary Traumatic Stress

The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between exposure to traumatised complainants and secondary traumatic stress. It also established the occurrence of secondary traumatic stress and the degree to which police detective officers reported secondary traumatic stress symptoms. Data were obtained on 51 police detective officers working in the Family Violence, Child Protection and Sexual Offences unit of the South African Police Service. A quantitative, correlational research design was employed to achieve the aim of the study. The sample was obtained using a combination of convenience and purposive sampling techniques.

- by Makhosonke Vilakazi
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- Psychology, Traumatology, Traumatic Brain Injury, Trauma

Vicarious trauma (VT) and secondary traumatic stress (STS) or compassion fatigue both describe effects of working with traumatized persons on therapists. Despite conceptual similarities, their emphases differ: cognitive schemas vs. posttraumatic symptoms and burnout, respectively. The TSI Belief Scale (TSI-BSL) measures VT, the Compassion Fatigue Self-Test (CFST) for Psychotherapists measures STS. Neither has substantial psychometric evidence yet, nor has their association been studied. Results for 99 sexual assault and domestic violence counselors show concurrent validity between TSI-BSL and CFST. moderate convergence with burnout but useful discrimination, and strong convergence with general distress, but adequate independent shared variance. Counselors with interpersonal trauma histories scored higher on CFST, but not TSI-BSL or burnout, consistent with the CFST's emphasis on trauma symptomatology.

- by Stephanie Baird and +1
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- Psychology, Domestic Violence, Psychometrics, Traumatic Stress

- by M. Bercier and +1
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- Vicarious Trauma, Systematic review, Secondary Traumatic Stress, Treating Compassion Fatigue

This is a chapter published the same year as my book on Compassion Fatigue.

- by Charles R Figley
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- Trauma Studies, Self Care, Compassion Fatigue, Secondary Traumatic Stress

What follows is a critical analysis of the concepts that evolved to explain and empirically study this type of traumatic experience as applied to social work practice. Guided by the question, What are the main theoretical concepts that have guided the study of empathic trauma in social work? Through my answer to this question I will offer a working definition of the concept of trauma and outline how the psychological sequel of trauma has been approached in the Euro-western context. The dominant concepts describing the potentially harmful consequences of professional relationships with traumatized people will be presented and the usefulness of these concepts will be discussed in light of recent changes to the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) criteria within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) (APA, 2013a).

- by Denise Brend
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- Trauma Studies, Vicarious Trauma, Compassion Fatigue, Secondary Trauma

There is burgeoning interest in secondary traumatic stress, compassion fatigue, and self-care in the helping professions. This multimethod study focused on therapists’ stress and coping in their work with trauma survivors, identifying factors related to resilience and burnout. Semistructured interviews were conducted with 20 clinicians subscribing to a systems perspective, and 104 clinicians were administered a questionnaire inquiring about their caseloads, trauma history, coping styles, emotional self-awareness, work stress, compassion satisfaction, compassion fatigue, and burnout.
Interview data demonstrated that therapists detect job
stress through bodily symptoms, mood changes, sleep
disturbances, becoming easily distracted, and increased
difficulty concentrating. Self-care strategies included
processing with peers/supervisor, spirituality, exercise,
and spending time with family. In the quantitative study,
social support, work hours, and internal locus of control
accounted for 41% of the variance in compassion satisfaction. Multiple regression procedures accounted for 54% of the variance in compassion fatigue and 74% of
the variance in burnout. Implications for clinical training and organizational policy are discussed.

- by Kyle D Killian
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- Marriage & Family Therapy, Mental Health Counseling, Self Care, Trauma

The research was about the compassion fatigue and its contributing factors in guidance counsellors. The sample for the study was 92 guidance counsellors. This study explored factors of compassion fatigue, work-related factors, personality traits and demographic factors utilising the following instruments: professional quality of life scale (ProQOLs), NEO PI-R and demographic questionnaire. The context for the study was different schools in Central Luzon-Region 3, Philippines. Descriptive statistics and multiple regression stepwise method were utilised in the study. Findings indicated that participants had low levels of burnout and low levels of secondary trauma stress as elements of compassion fatigue. Personality traits of the participants identified include low levels of neuroticism, average levels of extraversion, average levels of openness to experience, high level of agreeableness and high levels of conscientiousness. Multiple regression stepwise method confirmed that the personality traits neuroticism, extraversion and agreeableness predict burnout with a variability of 40%. Likewise, salary as work-related factor also predicts burnout with a variability of 4.7%. Similarly, personality trait neuroticism is confirmed to predict secondary trauma stress with a variability of 21.9%. Based on the two elements of compassion fatigue, neuroticism was found out to be the best predictor among the personality traits.

Human service workers are susceptible to negative phenomena such as compassion fatigue through their work with people experiencing trauma and extreme emotions. The aim of the study was to examine compassion fatigue in Irish funeral directors, and the role of possible protective factors. Measures included; the Professional Quality of Life Scale (Stamm, 2009) which examines compassion satisfaction and compassion fatigue (burnout and secondary traumatic stress), the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) (Zimet et al., 1988), 2 self-constructed items examining training; and a purpose designed item exploring self-care. Employing a questionnaire based correlational design; purposive sampling acquired a sample (N=60) of 48 males and 12 females. Findings indicate that funeral directors do not possess high levels of compassion fatigue, although their high levels of compassion satisfaction may reduce the possibility of burnout. Perceived social support from friends was negatively correlated with length of service. Discussion, suggestions and limitations of the study are addressed.

- by Gerard T M McCormack
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- Psychology, Death Studies, Self Care, Social Support

Clinicians have been experiencing secondary trauma for a long time. However, research has just started emerging in the last 20 years concerning this topic. Between June and August of 2017, I reviewed the literature regarding secondary trauma and analyzed the symptoms, risk factors, preventions, and ways to cope with it. Due to the recent discovery of this topic, there is limited research regarding secondary trauma. I found that there are multiple terms used interchangeably for secondary trauma, such as compassion fatigue and vicarious trauma. In order to find more resources, those terms were used as well. Providers who empathize with trauma survivors can experience secondary trauma and the symptoms are similar to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD). Researchers recommend that clinicians have a healthy balance between personal and professional activities. In addition, engaging in self-care is a vital way to prevent the development of secondary trauma.

- by Caitlyn Abshire
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- Vicarious Trauma, Compassion Fatigue, Secondary Traumatic Stress

This correlational quantitative research investigated to what extent, if any, a correlation between reported compassion satisfaction, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress of individual hospice employees and the number of patient deaths experienced in a 14-day period. The theoretical framework included the Job Demands-Resource Model. Data were collected via SurveyMonkey® from 117 hospice employees (registered nurses, licensed practical nurses, nursing assistants or certified nursing assistants, social workers, and chaplains) from for-profit and not-for-profit hospice companies across the United States. Spearman Correlation were computed to test the hypotheses. The results of the bivariate correlation indicated the number of deaths individual hospice employees experience have no significant correlation on compassion satisfaction (r = -0.124, p >.05) and secondary traumatic stress (r = -0.005, p >.05), but has a positive and significant correlation on burnout (r = 0.261, p < .005). Overall, the results indicate that as deaths experienced increased, burnout tends to increase. The lack of correlation between number of deaths experienced and levels of compassion satisfaction and levels of secondary traumatic stress suggests hospice employees generally acquire satisfaction from their work and have natural mechanisms to avoid reliving the patient’s life experiences. These findings have implications for future research on the importance of understanding how the number of patient deaths relates to the hospice employees’ psychological impact, to maintain hospice employees, and ensure quality of care for years to come.
Keywords: Hospice employees, Job Demands-Resource Model, compassion satisfaction, burnout, secondary traumatic stress, and deaths experienced.

- by Chris Pfund
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- Death, Hospice & Palliative Care Nursing, Chaplaincy, Hospice

Travmatik olayların ardından yardım çalışmalarında yer alan profesyonel ve gönüllülerde travmanın dolaylı etkisi nedeniyle bazı olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlar görülme olasılığı bulunmaktadır. Bu alanda gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar, travmaya dolaylı olarak maruz kalanların doğrudan maruz kalanlara benzer stres tepkileri geliştirdiklerini, “İkincil Travmatik Stres” kavramıyla ifade edilen bu tepkilerin “Travma Sonrası Stres Bozukluğu”yla benzerlikler taşıdığını ortaya koymaktadır. Yardım çalışanlarında olumsuz psikolojik sonuçlarla ilişkili olan stres kaynakları, olayın/görevin özellikleriyle ilişkili olabileceği gibi yapılan mesleğe özgü unsurlar da taşıyabilmekte, bireysel ve mesleki bazı özellikler ikincil travmatik stres tepkilerini yordamaktadır. Dolayısıyla, yardım çalışanlarında görülebilecek travma sonrası stres tepkilerine kaynak oluşturan unsurları, bu tepkilerin oluşumunda rol oynayan risk etmenleri ve koruyucu unsurları belirleme, bu tepkilerin önlenmesi ve/veya stres tepkileriyle başa çıkmaya yardımcı olan müdahalelere bilimsel kanıt sağlama açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu gözden geçirme çalışmasında, ikincil travmatik stres olgusu, ilişkili değişkenler ve önleyici stratejiler konusunda yapılmış bilimsel araştırma bulguları ve alan çalışmaları çerçevesinde aktarılmaktadır.
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Traumatic events may cause negative psychological reactions on relief workers through indirect effects of trauma. Research reveal that individuals who are indirectly exposed to trauma develop similar stress responses to those directly exposed, and these responses, called “Secondary Traumatic Stress” have some common characteristics with “posttraumatic stress” symptomatology. Sources of stress in relief work may be related with the features of the event / duty as well as with the job, and individual and occupational factors may be predictive of posttraumatic symptoms. Therefore, it is important to identify the stressors and the strengths and weaknesses of relief workers so as to develop evidence based intervention strategies. In this review, secondary traumatic stress phenomenon is presented within the frame of reactions and related variables in relief workers that can be seen in relief workers and associated variables with secondary traumatic stress reactions.

Not infrequently counselor faced with complicated problems and traumatic outstanding experienced by the client. According to Figley and Stamm (in Stamm, 1999), a trauma counselor can come to experience some of the symptoms are similar to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), which is owned by their clients. Figley (in Richardson, 2001) defines this situation with Secondary Traumatic Stress (hereinafter referred to as STS), which is something that occurs naturally, is a behavioral and emotional consequences as a result of knowledge about a traumatic event experienced by a significant other. The term 'secondary' refers to the fact that the trauma experienced by others, but then experienced by the participating parties observe, giving aid, or listen to the story . This is the "price" of giving attention, care, and help individuals who experience trauma. Counselors need to be aware of this condition. Discussion professional is one important activity that needs to be done.

- by Amirah Diniaty
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- Konseling, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Breaking the Silence: A Phenomenological Exploration of Secondary Traumatic Stress in U.S. College Student Affairs Professionals is a qualitative-intensive mixed methods study using phenomenology and art-based research techniques to uncover the essence of secondary traumatic stress in U.S. college student affairs professionals. Researchers in the fields of psychology, counseling, social work and other helping professions suggest that repeated exposure to individuals experiencing trauma, or hearing repeated details of an individual’s trauma, have negative outcomes on professional helpers. Coined secondary traumatic stress, this phenomenon may be defined as “the stress resulting from helping or wanting to help a traumatized or suffering person” (Figley, 1999, p. 10). Despite severely increasing incidents of student trauma, little scholarship has focused on the impact that support-work may have on the professionals often acting as first responders for students. This study aimed to address this gap in knowledge.
Guided by phenomenological methods described by Moustakas (1994), this study investigated the essence of secondary traumatic stress through the lived experiences of 30 college student affairs professionals who have supported students through one or more traumatic events. These individuals were also asked to complete a brief visual representation activity used within their interviews to better understand the nuances of their experience of secondary trauma and how it manifests. A total of seven meta-themes emerged from the data: 1) Cumulative nature of trauma support in higher education 2) Inadequate professional preparation, resources, and guidance 3) Professional’s self-efficacy as an effective support-person 4) Impact of professional and organizational culture on the development of maladaptive views of student support 5) Importance of personal and professional support networks 6) Personal impact of professional’s relationship with student(s) in crisis 7) The negative impact of support-work on personal wellness. These themes suggested that the professionals in this study experienced negative psychological and physical outcomes as a result of their work supporting students through trauma. Findings also suggested the repetitive and collective nature of student trauma within student affairs work. Implications for policy, practice, and future research are discussed.

- by R. Jason Lynch
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- Phenomenology, Trauma Studies, Arts-Based Research, Student Affairs

Compassion fatigue is defined as indirect or secondary trauma that develops among caregivers as a result of their involvement in the trauma state of the individual under their care, to the point that they
begin to empathize with and become deeply involved in the other person’s feelings and suffering. The present study evaluated perceptions of compassion fatigue among 15 preschool teachers in Israel by
means of qualitative in-depth semi-structured interviews. The study’s findings show that preschool teachers are under a great deal of stress. Their work is multifaceted and entails major responsibility, causing them to feel “alone in the battle.” Most preschool teachers find it difficult to strike a balance between their professional and their personal lives. The study found that during the course of their work, all the interviewed teachers had helped at least one child and his or her family cope with trauma, leading them to experience pain, worry and helplessness. The teachers felt the support provided by the Ministry of Education was inadequate and expressed their need for a more appropriate and
accessible support system. The study highlights the feelings of stress and burnout preschool teachers experience at work, the significant impact of secondary trauma on their lives and the need for a
formal support system.

- by Inbar Levkovich
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- Burnout, Compassion Fatigue, Kindergarten, Preschool Teachers
- by Grace Rodríguez
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- Depression, Pensamiento, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Background: Therapists who work with trauma clients are impacted both positively and negatively. However, most studies have tended to focus on the negative impact of the work, the quantitative evidence has been inconsistent, and the research has primarily been conducted outside the United Kingdom. Objectives: This study aimed to assess the prevalence of, and identify predictor variables for, compassion satisfaction, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress in a group of UK therapists (N 0253) working with adult trauma clients. Method: An online questionnaire was developed which used The Professional Quality of Life Scale (Version 5) to assess compassion satisfaction, burnout, and secondary traumatic stress and collect demographics and other pertinent information. Results: Whilst the majority of therapists scored within the average range for compassion satisfaction and burnout, 70% of scores indicated that therapists were at high risk of secondary traumatic stress. Maturity, time spent engaging in research and development activities, a higher perceived supportiveness of management, and supervision predicted higher potential for compassion satisfaction. Youth and a lower perceived supportiveness of management predicted higher risk of burnout. A higher risk of secondary traumatic stress was predicted in therapists engaging in more individual supervision and self-care activities, as well as those who had a personal trauma history. Conclusions: UK therapists working with trauma clients are at high risk of being negatively impacted by their work, obtaining scores which suggest a risk of developing secondary traumatic stress. Of particular note was that exposure to trauma stories did not significantly predict secondary traumatic stress scores as suggested by theory. However, the negative impact of working with trauma clients was balanced by the potential for a positive outcome from trauma work as a majority indicated an average potential for compassion satisfaction.

- by Sue E Holttum
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- Burnout, Secondary Traumatic Stress, online questionnaire

Compassion fatigue is common among counselors who are
exposed to the ongoing trauma of students and families at times
of distress and crisis. The aim of this study was to examine compassion
fatigue, perceived stress, optimism and emotional distress
among school counselors among 139 Israeli school counselors.
The results indicated that compassion fatigue correlates positively
both with perceived stress and with emotional distress and negatively
with optimism. Levels of compassion fatigue were higher
among Israeli school counselors working in elementary school
than among those working in high school. Perceived stress
mediated the association between compassion fatigue and emotional
distress. The findings indicate that the personal resources
available to helpers as well as vulnerability factors may affect
levels of compassion fatigue and emotional distress

- by Inbar Levkovich
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- Optimism, Emotional Distress, Burnout, Compassion Fatigue

Aim This paper explores how transforming stress related visual images without verbalizing on them can be relevant for health care professionals who are exposed to stressful images in their work.
Methods: Transformation of these images is conducted using changes of compositional elements such as shape, color, size and texture firstly in a drawn image, and secondly in an imagined image:
We hypothesize that subjective discomfort levels (SUDS) will be reduced by visually transforming their images
We also assume that similar elements of color, size shape and texture will be drawn and imagined.
Thirty six health professionals participated in a five hours workshop that took place in two consecutive days. SUDS levels were calculated and were found to be reduced following image transformation in both art and imagery.
Results On a comparative level, the elements of 'shape 'size' and 'color', were highly used in both techniques and did not differ statistically significantly. Other measures did differ
Overall, the reduction in stress by transforming both real and imagined images was the significant, and similar.
The compositional elements used to transform images are discussed as a theoretical base for reducing work related stress.

- by Ephrat Huss
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- Clinical Psychology, Art Therapy, Public Health, Clinical Supervision

This preliminary investigation examined the stress levels of school administrators through a survey. Alumni from the University of Washington’s Danforth Program (School Administrator Credential Program) were emailed the survey through Danforth’s list-serve. Survey participants included female (n=43) and male (n=19) school administrators with a mean age of 46.16 years old. Participants completed a stress survey of 45 questions focused on workload, support, stress, job satisfaction, life satisfaction and restorative practices. Results indicated that participants do not feel supported at work, bring work stress home 5 days a week and participants believe they have good stress coping strategies. Findings on universal mental health interventions for students are discussed to illustrate that mental health interventions are taking place in the schools but primarily only focusing on one population within the schools, the students. In addition, perceived stress related to workload and sense of instructional leadership efficacy was directly related to job satisfaction. Greater detail about these and other key findings, as well as implications for research and practice, are discussed.

Abstract Intimate partner violence (IPV) social workers are at elevated risk of developing post-traumatic stress resulting from ongoing exposure to potentially distressing client disclosures. Workplace social support (WSS) may play a role in moderating that risk. This study used the interpretive phenomenological analysis approach to gain understanding about the phenomenon of WSS from the perspective of IPV social workers. Perceptions of having received WSS, or that WSS was available, were formed by worker’s specific needs being met and by their having access to support people with disciplinary skills. The theory of mentalization is advanced here as a framework from which to understand the processes leading to IPV social worker perceptions of WSS. Implications for social work practice and further research are presented.

- by Denise Brend
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- Psychology, Social Work, Qualitative methodology, Phenomenology

ntimate partner violence (IPV) social workers are at elevated risk of developing post-traumatic stress resulting from ongoing exposure to potentially distressing client disclosures. Workplace social support (WSS) may play a role in moderating that risk. This study used the interpretive phenomenological analysis approach to gain understanding about the phenomenon of WSS from the perspective of IPV social workers. Perceptions of having received WSS, or that WSS was available, were formed by worker’s specific needs being met and by their having access to support people with disciplinary skills. The theory of mentalization is advanced here as a framework from which to understand the processes leading to IPV social worker perceptions of WSS. Implications for social work practice and further research are presented.

- by Denise Brend
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- Social Work, Qualitative methodology, Phenomenology, Qualitative Research

En la presente investigación se evalúa la efectividad de un taller de autocuidado de orientación cognitivo conductual diseñado para ser aplicado a psicólogos clínicos con altos niveles de estrés traumático secundario. El objetivo del taller es aumentar la frecuencia de emisión de conductas de autocuidado y disminuir los niveles de estrés traumático secundario en los psicólogos. Mediante un diseño cuasi-experimental se evalúan los efectos del taller. Los resultados indican que, después de las 5 sesiones que dura el taller, los psicólogos que participaron en él (n=9) aumentaron significativamente sus conductas de autocuidado y disminuyeron significativamente sus niveles de desgaste. En cambio, los psicólogos que no participaron del taller (n=12) no variaron en la frecuencia del autocuidado y aumentaron el estrés traumático secundario. En virtud de estos resultados se concluye que el taller es efectivo y se constituye como una alternativa para prevenir y tratar el desgaste laboral en psicólogos clínicos.

Adverse Childhood Experiences Research Childhood experiences involving abuse, neglect, domestic violence, outof-home placement, and homelessness produce chronic traumatic stress. Undesirable short and long-term consequences result, as documented by the Adverse Childhood Experiences research (Anda et al., 2010). Unidentified and untreated trauma has deleterious effects on children's health, school performance, and contact with the justice system. These

- by James Caringi
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- Family Strengths, Secondary Traumatic Stress

The present study aimed to explore the reality of the wives of Portuguese Colonial War veterans diagnosed with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), in order to verify if their exposure to veterans’ symptoms of PTSD (and comorbid symptoms) leads to the development/manifestation of Secondary Traumatic Stress Disorder (STSD) in them. Furthermore, it also aimed to characterize the psychological functioning (cognitive, emotional/symptomatic) and quality of life (QoL) of these women. Therefore, a comparison has been carried out between groups couples’ wives whose each matching husband has met the diagnostic criteria (N=8) and the husband did not exhibit this nosological pattern (N=7). It was revealed the existence of STSD in 25% of wives of the veterans with PTSD and identified that the symptoms’ profile of depression, anxiety (as trait and as state) and avoidance observed in the husbands is similar to that observed in the wives. The qualitative study allowed us to provide a broader scope to the present investigation, allowing to identify the existence of perceptions of discontinuity/rupture, continuity/constancy and progression concerning the symptomatology of the war veterans and their marital and familiar dynamics, being the narratives characterized by the discrepancy between the pre and post-war events, once the Colonial War was acknowledged as a trigger for a major change on their husbands’ behavior, in their lives and in their marital dynamics.

Resumen La presente investigación tuvo como objetivo evaluar la relación entre la frecuencia de emisión de conductas de autocuidado en psicólogos clínicos y sus niveles de estrés traumático secundario y de depresión. Para esto una muestra... more

- by Karla A. Rodríguez Ureta
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- Depression, Pensamiento, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Abuse, Neglect, and Trauma: Adverse Childhood Experiences Research Childhood experiences involving abuse, neglect, domestic violence, outof-home placement, and homelessness produce chronic traumatic stress. Undesirable short and long-term consequences result, as documented by the Adverse Childhood Experiences research (Anda et al., 2010). Unidentified and untreated trauma has deleterious effects on children's health, school performance, and contact with the justice system. These

- by Hal Lawson
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- Family Strengths, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Paying attention to the nurse’s affects at hospitals can cause development in well-being in addition to enhancement of patient-nurse relationship. It also increase the job performance. Current study aimed to explore the effect of Mindful Self-Compassion (MSC) training on aspects of professional quality of life in nursing students. A quasi-experimental research method was adopted using a pretest-posttest with control group design. Research participants included 46 nursing student in medical science university of Hamedan. After contribution of professional quality of life questionnaires (Stamm,2010) among 150 people, 46 people who got medium or less score in professional quality of life questionnaire and were tendency to attend 8 session training class, placed in experiment and control group randomly. Experiment group was trained MSC in 8 sessions and each session was 1.5 hour. After that post-test was contributed in both groups. At last Analyze of Covariance was used for data analysis of 38 people because sample group had a decrease. Results showed that MSC training had significant effect on decrease of secondary traumatic stress (F=22/76, p<0/001) and burnout (F=11/70, P<0/002), and also on increase of compassion satisfaction (F=30.35, P<0.001). According to results of current study, MSC training can be used for decrease of secondary traumatic stress and burnout and increase of compassion satisfaction in nursing students.

BACKGROUND What follows is a critical analysis of the concepts that evolved to explain and empirically study this type of traumatic experience as applied to social work practice. Guided by the question, What are the main theoretical concepts that have guided the study of empathic trauma in social work? Through my answer to this question I will offer a working definition of the concept of trauma and outline how the psychological sequel of trauma has been approached in the Euro-western context. The dominant concepts describing the potentially harmful consequences of professional relationships with traumatized people will be presented and the usefulness of these concepts will be discussed in light of recent changes to the posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) criteria within the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) (APA, 2013a).

- by Denise Brend
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- Trauma Studies, Vicarious Trauma, Intervention, Compassion Fatigue
- by Emina Borjanić Bolić
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- Vicarious Trauma, Burnout, Wounded Healer, Secondary Traumatic Stress

and their patience always and, most of all, for truly being an inspiration to me. Mrs Talana Burger, the UNISA librarian, for the many literature sources she helped me find. Mrs M Burgers and Mrs CM de Villiers, the UNISA librarians at Cape Town regional office, for their patience and perseverance in assisting me to locate literature sources. Dr Catherine Ward, at the Human Sciences Research Council in Cape Town, for her guidance, support and time. Dr R Nieuwoudt, for assisting me in analysing the data. My sister, Janine Malgas, for her encouragement and continuous support throughout my studies. Metro District Health Services for allowing me to do the research. My colleagues, the mental health nurses, for sharing their experiences with me and making this research possible. Mrs Lorinda Benjamin, for the technical support she uncomplainingly gave me. Mrs Iauma Cooper, for editing this dissertation in such a professional manner. Most of all, my Creator, for granting me the strength and courage to complete this research..

- by Penelope Martin
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- Psychology, Compassion Fatigue, Dissertation, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Natural disasters may have perplexing effects on the lives of those who live through them, in physical, mental and emotional ways. For years researchers have explored the long-term health impact of disasters, which can include anxiety, depression, PTSD and more. These conditions may manifest and be observed for many years after traumatic events. Awareness of these conditions is vital for researchers who immerse themselves in observational research involving disaster-affected participants. These researchers should be prepared to deal with potential problems related to the specific conditions in the field and within themselves as researchers. This article draws on autoethnography and reflexive practices to explore the process of employing ethnographic methods while researching medical education during fieldwork in Aceh, Indonesia. I highlight three persistent dilemmas: engaging with safety protocols, building rapport with vulnerable participants, and preventing myself from secondary trauma stress. Reflecting on my experiences, I came to realize the importance for researchers to probe not only the gaps and problems in the core domain of research, but to also probe participants’ problems, as well as their own predicaments.
Keywords: Autoethnography, reflexivity; safety protocol; vulnerable participant; secondary-trauma stress.

- by Rosaria Indah
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- Reflective Practice, Research Methodology, Ethnography, Qualitative methodology

Each year, thousands of women experience violence, and many of these are survivors of intimate partner violence. Each year, thousands of nurses provide physical and emotional care to these women. Nurses and employers need to recognize that exposures to traumatized women place nurses at risk for the development of secondary traumatic stress disorder. This article describes secondary traumatic stress, its risk factors, and its consequences. Workplace interventions and policies are recommended to reduce the avoidance, numbness, intrusive imagery, and other negative symptoms associated with secondary traumatic stress disorder.

- by Gordon Gillespie
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- Nursing, Violence, Adolescent, Nurses

The spiking exposure of traumatic events faced by workers and volunteers in handling violence against women has the potential to lead to compassion fatigue. This research sought to describe the experience and protective factors of compassion fatigue in Complaint and Referral Unit volunteers who provide services to female victims of violence in Komnas Perempuan. A total of 3 respondents participated in this study through online interview. Thematic analysis is performed to analyze the data. The result suggested that the participants had compassion fatigue symptoms, which included burnout and secondary traumatic stress symptoms. The experience of burnout included physical and emotional exhaustion as well as guilt and helplessness. Whereas secondary traumatic stress was expressed in preoccupation of thoughts about victim’s violence case and projection in personal relationships. Nevertheless, these symptoms had been resolved due to protective factors such as personal characteristics (educational background and self-care) and social support (personal and professional support from the organization). This study added to our knowledge on how to create supportive system for volunteers who provide services for victims of violence against women.

- by Hana Berliani Adiningsih
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- Social Work, Violence Against Women, Burnout, Compassion Fatigue

Compassion fatigue as an important consideration in the work life of humanitarian aid workers assisting victims of natural disaster in the Philippines, was hypothesized to be mediated by emotional intelligence based on the individual’s information processing system. 41 humanitarian aid workers in the Philippines volunteered to participate in the study, which measured their information processing style, their levels of emotional intelligence and their compassion fatigue. Through the utilization of multiple regression statistical models, it was found that emotional intelligence does not mediate individual’s compassion fatigue from their information processing style. Results identified rational information processing systems as a predictor of emotional intelligence.

- by James Caringi
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- Family Strengths, Emotional Labor, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Resumen En la presente investigación se evalúa la efectividad de un taller de autocuidado de orientación cognitivo conductual diseñado para ser aplicado a psicólogos clínicos con altos niveles de estrés traumático secundario. El objetivo del taller es aumentar la frecuencia de emisión de conductas de autocuidado y disminuir los niveles de estrés traumático secundario en los psicólogos. Mediante un diseño cuasi-experimental se evalúan los efectos del taller. Los resultados indican que, después de las 5 sesiones que dura el taller, los psicólogos que participaron en él (n=9) aumentaron significativamente sus conductas de autocuidado y disminuyeron significativamente sus niveles de desgaste. En cambio, los psicólogos que no participaron del taller (n=12) no variaron en la frecuencia del autocuidado y aumentaron el estrés traumático secundario. En virtud de estos resultados se concluye que el taller es efectivo y se constituye como una alternativa para prevenir y tratar el desgaste laboral en psicólogos clínicos. Palabras clave: Taller de autocuidado, conductas de autocuidado, estrés traumático secundario, psicólogos clínicos.

- by Ana Laura Moreno Rangel
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- Terapia Psicologica, Secondary Traumatic Stress
- by R. Jason Lynch
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- Higher Education, Secondary Trauma, Secondary Traumatic Stress
- by Petra Brysiewicz
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- Nursing, Mental Health, Secondary Traumatic Stress

Justice is a key concept upon which society is built. Different interpretations of justice, and disagreements over what it demands, continue to complicate its meaning and application. Though academic and public discourse has added to knowledge as to what justice represents, developing an understanding of justice from the view of everyday people has important empirical and clinical implications. It is argued here that research grounded in people\u27s lived experience yields a more comprehensive picture of justice in terms of how the concept is structured and secondly, how its meaning varies between individuals. Such knowledge can be used to develop judicial and community policies/services better suited to community needs. This research focused on perceptions of justice amongst family and friends of victims (secondary victims) of sexual assault or abuse. Evidence suggests that secondary victims are affected by victimisation similar to direct victims and furthermore, are important to direct victims\u27 recovery. Sexual crime also represents an important form of crime in that it constitutes a particularly serious violation of personal boundaries. A grounded theory approach to empirical inquiry was adopted in this research in keeping with the emphasis on exploration and lived experience. Data was collected over 2 interrelated studies. In Study 1, 20 participants completed a pen-and-paper questionnaire. In Study 2, which constituted the main study, 29 participants took part in semi-structured interviews. Analysis revealed that a sense of justice emerged out of themes/concepts covering two major areas: the experience of victimisation and secondly, beliefs about justice per se. Victimisation impacted on participants similar to how contact with traumatised individuals results in secondary trauma in some carers, health professionals, and similar support figures. Justice themes/concepts relevant to participants overlapped with elements represented in procedural and retributive theories of justice, as well as centring on concepts, such as healing and recognition, which fall outside of traditional justice theory. Participants sought good enough rather than absolute justice and relatively few participants believed good enough justice had been achieved in their situation. Overall, findings indicated that justice is expressed and realised in different ways between individuals despite clustering around common themes/concepts

- by Kristy Downe
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- Criminology, Psychology, Criminal Justice, Perception

- by Rhenan Estacio
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- Psychology, Compassion, Self Compassion, Burnout

Fifty-seven studies were reviewed to identify the prevalence of compassion fatigue among cancer-care providers, instruments used to detect it and means of prevention and treatment. Conclusions were limited by an ambiguous definition of compassion fatigue that fails to adequately differentiate it from related constructs (e.g. burnout, secondary traumatic stress) and the modest number of cancer-related studies found. However, evidence suggests that compassion fatigue takes a toll not only on cancer-care providers but also on the workplace. These findings highlight the need to understand more clearly the link between the empathic sensitivity of healthcare professionals and their vulnerability to compassion fatigue.

- by Louanne Davis
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- Health Psychology, Oncology, Cancer, Vulnerability

- by Denise Brend
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- Social Work, Qualitative methodology, Phenomenology, Qualitative Research

Background: Compassion fatigue describes a work-related stress response in healthcare providers that is considered a ‘cost of caring’ and a key contributor to the loss of compassion in healthcare. Objective: The purpose of this review was to critically examine the construct of compassion fatigue and to determine if it is an accurate descriptor of work-related stress in healthcare providers and a valid target variable for intervention. Design: Meta-narrative review. Data Sources: PubMed, Medline, CINAHL, PsycINFO, and Web of Science databases, Google Scholar, the grey literature, and manual searches of bibliographies. Review methods: Seminal articles and theoretical and empirical studies on compassion fatigue in the healthcare literature were identified and appraised for their validity and relevance to our review. Sources were mapped according to the following criteria: 1) definitions; 2) conceptual analyses; 3) signs and symptoms; 4) measures; 5) prevalence and associated risk facto...

- by Lorraine Smith-Macdonald
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- Nursing, Compassion, Stress and Burnout, Burnout