Habituation Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Previous experiments have demonstrated that auditory (AS) and/or somatosensory (SS) stimulation can increase the duration of REM sleep periods in rats, cats and humans. The objectives of this study were to determine whether repeated AS... more

Previous experiments have demonstrated that auditory (AS) and/or somatosensory (SS) stimulation can increase the duration of REM sleep periods in rats, cats and humans. The objectives of this study were to determine whether repeated AS stimulation causes habituation to the stimulus and whether any additive effects could be obtained with the simultaneous application of AS and SS. Three experimental procedures were used in this study. In experiment 1, animals were recorded for 4 consecutive days with AS, followed by a post-stimulus session. In experiment 2, they were recorded for 24 hours with AS applied at each REM period, followed by a subsequent 24-hours-post-stimulus recording. In experiment 3, animals underwent AS, SS stimulation, or simultaneous application of both in a random fashion at each REM period. The results of all experiments confirm previous findings showing that auditory or somatosensory stimuli significantly increase REM sleep period duration. In addition, AS--applie...

In this study, we demonstrate how an event that is initially frightening to Atlantic salmon is turned to a positive stimulus through habituation and associative learning. The study was carried out in four commercial sized tanks (5 m 3)... more

In this study, we demonstrate how an event that is initially frightening to Atlantic salmon is turned to a positive stimulus through habituation and associative learning. The study was carried out in four commercial sized tanks (5 m 3) with near industry densities ([550 fish, 16 kg m-3), using a delay conditioning procedure with an aversive flashing light as the conditioned stimulus and food reward as the unconditioned stimulus. By using video image analysis of the distribution of the fish in the tanks, the changes in behaviour from trial to trial could be documented in great detail. The current study documents the change in behaviour across the individual conditioning trials, clearly showing the step-by-step nature of the transition. The salmon needed more than 26 trials to become fully habituated to the flashing light but showed clear anticipatory behaviour already after about 19 trials. This demonstrates that the learning process is a combination of habituation and associative learning.

Novel stimuli in all sensory modalities are highly effective in attracting and focusing attention. Stimulus-specific adaptation (SSA) and brain activity evoked by novel stimuli have been studied using population measures such as imaging... more

Novel stimuli in all sensory modalities are highly effective in attracting and focusing attention. Stimulus-specific adaptation (SSA) and brain activity evoked by novel stimuli have been studied using population measures such as imaging and event-related potentials, but there have been few studies at the single-neuron level. In this study we compare SSA across different populations of neurons in the inferior colliculus (IC) of the rat and show that a subclass of neurons with rapid and pronounced SSA respond selectively to novel sounds. These neurons, located in the dorsal and external cortex of the IC, fail to respond to multiple repetitions of a sound but briefly recover their excitability when some stimulus parameter is changed. The finding of neurons that respond selectively to novel stimuli in the mammalian auditory midbrain suggests that they may contribute to a rapid subcortical pathway for directing attention and ⁄ or orienting responses to novel sounds.

The management of human-American black bear (Ursus americanus) conflict has been of significant concern for Yosemite National Park (YNP) personnel since the 1920s. Park managers implemented the YNP Human-Bear Management Plan in 1975 in an... more

The management of human-American black bear (Ursus americanus) conflict has been of significant concern for Yosemite National Park (YNP) personnel since the 1920s. Park managers implemented the YNP Human-Bear Management Plan in 1975 in an effort to reduce human-bear conflicts, especially in the extensively developed Yosemite Valley (YV). We used scat analysis to estimate annual and seasonal food habits of black bears in YV during 2001-02. We assessed the success of efforts to reduce the availability of anthropogenic foods, including garbage, by examining changes in the diet compared to a study from -78 (Graber 1981. We also quantified consumption of non-native fruit to address its possible contribution to humanbear conflicts. The annual percent volume of human-provided food and garbage in black bear scats in YV decreased from 21% to 6% between 1978 and 2002, indicating YNP efforts have been effective. We found high use of non-native apples by bears throughout YV. Non-native food sources could be contributing to habituation and food conditioning, given their proximity to developed areas of YV. We recommend that YNP managers continue to (1) adapt and improve their management tools to address changing circumstances, (2) quantify the success of new management tools, and (3) reduce the availability of non-native food sources.

Food restriction (FR) has a beneficial effect on aging process and exerts a significant effect on the responses of rodents to standard behavioral tasks. The aim of this study was to assess the cumulative influence of FR on the behavioral... more

Food restriction (FR) has a beneficial effect on aging process and exerts a significant effect on the responses of rodents to standard behavioral tasks. The aim of this study was to assess the cumulative influence of FR on the behavioral and biochemical parameters in Wistar rats. Six-month-old rats were subjected to restrictive feeding (50% of the daily food intake, every-other-day feeding regimen) for one month or for six months until ages of 7 and 12 months, respectively. We examined the habituation of exploratory movement, amphetamine (AMPH)-induced motor activity, as well as changes in serum corticosterone (CORT) and glucose levels. The results obtained from FR animals were compared with ad libitum (AL)-fed age-matched control rats. Habituation of motor activity was only affected by six months of restrictive feeding. The sensitization of the motor response to AMPH that was observed in animals exposed to FR for one month was not observed in animals that were exposed to the same feeding regimen for six months. Serum CORT was increased and serum glucose was decreased in both FR groups. These results clearly show that despite the similarity of the biochemical changes that were induced by one and six months of FR, the nature of the changes in motor activities in these two groups of animals during habituation and after AMPH treatment was different. Our findings indicate that long-term FR has complex behavioral consequences that need to be carefully evaluated with respect to animal age, duration of FR and severity of the diet.

Co-orientation with others by using their gaze direction is considered to be adaptive for detecting food or predators or monitoring social interactions. Like the great apes, common ravens are capable of following human experimenters' gaze... more

Co-orientation with others by using their gaze direction is considered to be adaptive for detecting food or predators or monitoring social interactions. Like the great apes, common ravens are capable of following human experimenters' gaze direction not only into distant space but also behind visual barriers. We investigated the ontogenetic development of these abilities by confronting birds with a human foster parent looking up (experiment 1) and behind visual barriers (experiment 3) and their modification by habituation (experiments 2 and 4). We tested a group of 12 hand-reared ravens during their first 10 months of life. Ravens responded to others' look-ups soon after fledging but could track their gaze behind a visual barrier only 4 months later, at the age they usually become independent from their parents. Furthermore, ravens quickly ceased responding to repeated look-ups by the model, but did not habituate to repeated gaze cues directed behind a barrier. Our findings support the idea that the two modes of gaze following reflect different cognitive levels in ravens and, possibly, have different functions.

We assessed the effects of increasing human activity on brown bear Ursus arctos use of a salmon spawning stream by comparing observations (865h) collected 1988-1990 to those (293h) from 1992 when human activities extended a week later... more

We assessed the effects of increasing human activity on brown bear Ursus arctos use of a salmon spawning stream by comparing observations (865h) collected 1988-1990 to those (293h) from 1992 when human activities extended a week later into the fall feeding period (26 August-12 October). We classified individual adult bears according to their tolerance of people as "habituated', or 'non-habituated'," sub-adults were considered a third behavioural class. In 1992, non-habituated adults (n = 14 of 22 total adults) reduced their activity in apparent response to an extended lodge season, by delaying their use of the river by 17 days. In contrast, habituated adult bear activity remained similar among years, and sub-adult activity increased >four-fold in 1992. We suggest that the human-induced decrease in non-habituated adult activity may have allowed the increased levels of sub-adult activity.

Using positron emission tomographic measurements of regional cerebral blood¯ow, we report activation of a medial pons area in humans during acoustic startle stimulation. Eight healthy volunteers were scanned during rest and when presented... more

Using positron emission tomographic measurements of regional cerebral blood¯ow, we report activation of a medial pons area in humans during acoustic startle stimulation. Eight healthy volunteers were scanned during rest and when presented startle-eliciting stimuli. We performed a theory-driven directed search for activity in the nucleus reticularis pontis caudalis, situated in the pons. Because habituation of cerebellar activity during acoustic startle repetition has been reported [Timmann, D., Musso, C., Kolb, F.P., Rijntjes, M., Juptner, M., Muller, S.P., Diener, H.C. & Weiller, C. (1998) J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 65, 771±773], we also predicted habituation in the cerebellum and in the pons as a function of startle repetition. Measurements of eye electromyography validated the presence of a startle response and its habituation. Analysis of regional cerebral blood¯ow revealed higher neural activity during startle stimulation than at rest in a medial pons area consistent with the location of the pontine reticular nucleus. As a consequence of startle repetition, regional cerebral blood¯ow increased in the medial cerebellum, and habituated in the ventral cerebellum and in a ventral pons area separate from the pontine reticular nucleus. In the ventral pons, but not in the pontine reticular nucleus, regional cerebral blood¯ow and the startle re¯ex were positively correlated. In the cerebellum both positive and negative correlations with the startle re¯ex were observed. Thus we conclude that the neurofunctional correlates of the startle circuit and its habituation in humans are similar to that previously described in animals.

This study examined skin conductance responses, the late positive complex of the event-related potential, and pupillary dilation responses as autonomic and central correlates of the orienting reflex (OR) in the context of indifferent and... more

This study examined skin conductance responses, the late positive complex of the event-related potential, and pupillary dilation responses as autonomic and central correlates of the orienting reflex (OR) in the context of indifferent and significant stimuli. In particular, we aimed to clarify the inconsistencies surrounding the pupillary dilation response as an OR index. An auditory dishabituation paradigm was employed, and physiological measures were recorded from 24 participants. Response decrement to a repeated stimulus, response recovery to a change stimulus, and subsequent dishabituation were assessed. Findings confirmed expectations that the skin conductance response and the late positive complex are indices of the OR. The pupillary dilation response, however, demonstrated an unexpected sensitivity to stimulus novelty only, while the prestimulus measure of tonic pupil diameter showed the significance effect that was expected of the phasic measure. Together, these findings argue against the suggestion that the pupillary dilation response is an OR index. The diverse results obtained from this experiment contribute to our understanding of the OR, and provide impetus for further research with a variety of paradigm manipulations.

For small colleges, the use of invertebrates in undergraduate learning laboratory experiments may be a valuable alternative to the use of vertebrate species. This article describes a habituation experiment using terrestrial hermit crabs.... more

For small colleges, the use of invertebrates in undergraduate learning laboratory experiments may be a valuable alternative to the use of vertebrate species. This article describes a habituation experiment using terrestrial hermit crabs. All of the materials required are inexpensive and readily available. What makes this experiment unique is that although the instructor sets basic parameters, students have a crucial role in the experiment's design and the analysis of collected data. Assessment of learning outcomes and student evaluations indicate that conducting this experiment aided in students' learning of behavioral techniques, habituation phenomena and theory, and the role of habituation in the lives of organisms.

This study (1) explored the feasibility of using electrodermal activity (EDA) to characterize the arousal and sensory reactivity of children with high functioning autism (HFA) and Asperger's Syndrome (AS), (2) determined the reliability... more

This study (1) explored the feasibility of using electrodermal activity (EDA) to characterize the arousal and sensory reactivity of children with high functioning autism (HFA) and Asperger's Syndrome (AS), (2) determined the reliability of electrodermal measures and (3) described the variability of EDA in this sample. Forty children with HFA and AS participated. All participants received a diagnostic psychological assessment and a physiological evaluation. Fourteen participated in the retest study on the physiological measures. Results indicated psychophysiologic testing was feasible with this sample. Seventy-three percent of the variables had reliability coefficients greater than .33, with a median variable reliability of .45. No significant differences were detected between HFA and AS groups. Visual inspection of skin conductance level (SCL) suggested two patterns: (1) high SCL (high arousal), with higher EDA magnitudes, faster latencies and slower habituation and (2) low SCL (low arousal), with lower EDA magnitudes, slower latencies and faster habituation. The presence of two EDA patterns applied equally when medications were eliminated. The previous inconsistency in studies of EDA in children with HFA and AS may be due to the presence of a high arousal groups and a low arousal group. Hence, this population should not be assumed to be homogeneous. #

According to Aristotle, ethical virtues like justice and courage are not part of our inborn natural endowment but have to be acquired. The mode of their acquisition seems to be epitomized by the following quotation: "Again, in all the... more

According to Aristotle, ethical virtues like justice and courage are not part of our inborn natural endowment but have to be acquired. The mode of their acquisition seems to be epitomized by the following quotation: "Again, in all the cases where something arises in us by nature, we first acquire the capacities and later exhibit the activities. (...) Virtues, how ever, we acquire by first exercising them. The same is true with skills, since what we need to leam before doing, we learn by doing; for example, we become builders by building, and lyre-players by playing the lyre. So too we become just by doing just actions, temperate by temperate actions, and courageous by courageous actions. " 1 The idea that acquiring the ethical virtues follows the well-known edu cational principle of 'leaming by doing', as Aristotle coins it here, is prom inent in the Nicomachean as weil as in the Eudemian Ethics. 2 As the quoted passage already suggests, this idea is fmnly rooted in at least two funda mental Aristotelian convictions. 1) Moral character is acquired by a process of habituation, an ethismos. To put it in Greek terms: ethos is ultimately brought about by ethos. This idea is already present in Plato 3 , and Aristotle nails down this connection with an etymological pun: "Character (Moc;) exists, as the name signifies, because it develops from habit (s0oc;), and a thing gets habituated as a result of a pattern of conduct that is not innate, by repeated movement of one sort or another, so that it is eventually 7 Aristotle, De mem. II, 452a30 (tr. J.I Beare). 8 Aristotle never states this explicitly or verbally but has been taken to rnean sornething Iike lt by rnany later cornrnentators and scholars; the usual reference for this idea is EN VII 10, 1152a30-33, where Aristotle quotes approvingly from the poet Euenos. 9 For "learning by doing" as the principle of learning an art see, e.g., Aristotle, Met. IX 8, 1049b29-32. The parallel between virtue and craft acquisition is stressed by Aristotle in Pol. VIII 1, 1337a18-21. 10 A cornprehensive analysis of the different passages in which Aristotle compares virtues and crafts is provided by Angier 2010, esp. eh. 5. j 101091_Linden_Artstote_09_Müller.indd 178

The self-contained chapters with reference lists are: One welfare, one health, one stress, humans and other animals, Adaptation, regulation, sentience and brain control, Limits to adaptation, Stress and welfare: history and usage of... more

The self-contained chapters with reference lists are:
One welfare, one health, one stress, humans and other animals,
Adaptation, regulation, sentience and brain control,
Limits to adaptation,
Stress and welfare: history and usage of concepts,
Assessing welfare: short-term responses,
Assessing welfare: long-term responses,
Preference studies and welfare,
Ethics: considering world issues,
Stress and welfare in the world.

We newly propose that the vigilance decrement occurs because the cognitive control system fails to maintain active the goal of the vigilance task over prolonged periods of time (goal habituation). Further, we hypothesized that momentarily... more

We newly propose that the vigilance decrement occurs because the cognitive control system fails to maintain active the goal of the vigilance task over prolonged periods of time (goal habituation). Further, we hypothesized that momentarily deactivating this goal (via a switch in tasks) would prevent the activation level of the vigilance goal from ever habituating. We asked observers to perform a visual vigilance task while maintaining digits in-memory. When observers retrieved the digits at the end of the vigilance task, their vigilance performance steeply declined over time. However, when observers were asked to sporadically recollect the digits during the vigilance task, the vigilance decrement was averted. Our results present a direct challenge to the pervasive view that vigilance decrements are due to a depletion of attentional resources and provide a tractable mechanism to prevent this insidious phenomenon in everyday life.

Previously we showed that swearing produces a pain lessening (hypoalgesic) effect for many people. 20 This paper assesses whether habituation to swearing occurs such that people who swear more frequently in daily life show a lesser pain... more

Previously we showed that swearing produces a pain lessening (hypoalgesic) effect for many people. 20 This paper assesses whether habituation to swearing occurs such that people who swear more frequently in daily life show a lesser pain tolerance effect of swearing, compared with people who swear less frequently. Pain outcomes were assessed in participants asked to repeat a swear word versus a nonswear word. Additionally, sex differences and the roles of pain catastrophizing, fear of pain, and daily swearing frequency were explored. Swearing increased pain tolerance and heart rate compared with not swearing. Moreover, the higher the daily swearing frequency, the less was the benefit for pain tolerance when swearing, compared with when not swearing. This paper shows apparent habituation related to daily swearing frequency, consistent with our theory that the underlying mechanism by which swearing increases pain tolerance is the provocation of an emotional response.

Chile A B S T R A C T Over the last decade the Humboldt penguin, Spheniscus humboldti, has become a focus for ecotourism. Current management applies visitor guidelines similar to those developed for Magellanic penguins, Spheniscus... more

Chile A B S T R A C T Over the last decade the Humboldt penguin, Spheniscus humboldti, has become a focus for ecotourism. Current management applies visitor guidelines similar to those developed for Magellanic penguins, Spheniscus magellanicus. However, unlike these, Humboldt penguins are extremely sensitive to human presence. Breeding success was significantly reduced at frequently visited sites. Heart rate telemetry during disturbance experiments revealed that Humboldt penguins respond more strongly to human presence than do any other penguin species thus far studied. A person passing an incubating penguin at 150 m distance already provoked a significant heart rate response. Recovery times were up to half an hour after direct human approach, causing increased energy expenditure without any overt behavioural reaction. Being extraordinary sensitive to human activity with little habituation potential the Humboldt penguin proves to be a difficult focal species for ecotourism. For sustainable ecotourism visitors are required to stay out of sight of Humboldt penguin breeding and moulting areas. Management guidelines need to acknowledge that even closely related species may react very differently towards human presence. 1 3 3 ( 2 0 0 6 ) 9 5 -1 0 6 a v a i l a b l e a t w w w . s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / b i o c o n Habituation

This paper discusses the dual sense of habit within the larger frame work of positive psychology. A brief history of positive psychology is outlined, with attention paid to the two definitions of habit, habit as such and habituation. The... more

This paper discusses the dual sense of habit within the larger frame work of positive psychology. A brief history of positive psychology is outlined, with attention paid to the two definitions of habit, habit as such and habituation. The main argument of this paper is that positive psychology tends to conflate these two distinct concepts, a confusion that has implication to the explanation of virtues and character strengths that are at the core of positive psychological theory. The confusion that results impacts the clarity and conciseness of the philosophical foundations of positive psychology, and calls into question the accuracy of its measurements. A brief discussion on the roots of these definitions follows, with consideration for future work.

Although most theories of human[ sexual behavior claim that rauch normal sexual behavior is learned, and theories of the etiology and modification of paraphilic and dysfunctional sexual behavior also claim that abnorrnal sexual behavior... more

Although most theories of human[ sexual behavior claim that rauch normal sexual behavior is learned, and theories of the etiology and modification of paraphilic and dysfunctional sexual behavior also claim that abnorrnal sexual behavior is leamed and can be counterconditioned, there is no systematic review examining the relationship• between conditioning and human sexual behal tor. We revtew research addressmg whether habztuatton, sensmzatlon, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning processes are involved in human sexual behavior. We conclude that, due to the methodological problems of extant studies, the basis for asserting the existence of relationships between habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, operänt conditioning, and sexual behavior is tenuous. +

The Stoic philosopher Epictetus repeatedly warns his students not merely to repeat what they have heard but instead to digest it in order to transform how they live. This involves changing their habitual ways of thinking. The way one goes... more

The Stoic philosopher Epictetus repeatedly warns his students not merely to repeat what they have heard but instead to digest it in order to transform how they live. This involves changing their habitual ways of thinking. The way one goes about this, Epictetus suggests, is by setting up contrary habits. Habits are the sorts of things that can vary in intensity, unlike virtue which is an all or nothing affair. The challenge when attempting to do this is avoiding external negative influences, Epictetus argues. The sort of training Epictetus advocates is broadly non-cognitive, which raises questions about the orthodoxy of Epictetus’s account.

The aim of this text is to consider the impact that the prosodic segmentation in literature has on the readership perception (specifically: the attention processes – habituation, dishabituation and sensitization) and consequently, how all... more

The aim of this text is to consider the impact that the prosodic segmentation in literature has on the readership perception (specifically: the attention processes – habituation, dishabituation and sensitization) and consequently, how all this allows the recipient to make the conceptualization of meaning. This work will be based on the research of Reuven Tsur, works of Viktor Shklovsky, the findings of cognitive science (especially cognitive psychology and neuroesthetics) and Adam Kulawik's verse theory. The author's focus will be on the essence and pur­pose of the prosodic segmentation is to secure semantic productivity of the text by limiting the cognitive freedom of conceptualiser and regulation of its cogni­tive response. This is achieved through the selection and arrangement of the ele­ments of text's paradigm, to focus the reader's attention on some important as­pects of the text. This text will also take into consideration the effect of habitu­ation, dishabituation and sensitization on the development and alternation of the verse paradigm over the centuries.

Interpretation of Aristotle's difficult definition of non-rational pleasure and pain and desire in De Anima III 7, 431a8-14. I show how Aristotle understands non-rational pleasure and pain and desire as part of a homeostatic mechanism of... more

Interpretation of Aristotle's difficult definition of non-rational pleasure and pain and desire in De Anima III 7, 431a8-14. I show how Aristotle understands non-rational pleasure and pain and desire as part of a homeostatic mechanism of self-preservation on the level of perceivers. I argue that his definition is meant to be zoologically basic, i.e. that it should capture the phenomena of pleasure and pain and desire on the most general (commensurate universal) level such as to include even very simple animals. I further argue that cognitivist interpretations of the definition in DA 431a8-14, all of which in one way or the other make the cognition of pleasure or goodness a necessary condition for desire, fail to capture the general zoological nature of Aristotle's definition. The paper ends with a brief discussion of how the basic zoological account of non-rational desire relates to the acquisition of moral virtues.

Columbia, as well as in interior areas such as Yellowstone National Park. Viewing is most often being done under conditions that offer acceptable safety to both people and bears. We analyze and comment on the underlying processes that... more

Columbia, as well as in interior areas such as Yellowstone National Park. Viewing is most often being done under conditions that offer acceptable safety to both people and bears. We analyze and comment on the underlying processes that lead brown bears to tolerate people at close range. Although habituation is an important process influencing the distance at which bears tolerate people, other variables also modify levels of bear-to-human tolerance. Because bears may react internally with energetic costs before showing an overt reaction to humans, we propose a new term, the Overt Reaction Distance, to emphasize that what we observe is the external reaction of a bear. In this paper we conceptually analyze bear viewing in terms of benefits and risks to people and bears. We conclude that managers and policy-makers must develop site-specific plans that identify the extent to which bear-to-human habituation and tolerance will be permitted. The proposed management needs scientific underpinning. It is our belief that bear viewing, where appropriate, may promote conservation of bear populations, habitats, and ecosystems as it instills respect and concern in those who participate.

The Aristotelian concept of habituation is receiving mounting and warranted interest in educational circles, but has also been subject to different lines of interpretation and critique. In this article, I bring forward Aristotle's words... more

The Aristotelian concept of habituation is receiving mounting and warranted interest in educational circles, but has also been subject to different lines of interpretation and critique. In this article, I bring forward Aristotle's words on habituation, and then clarify the two lines of interpretation that have developed in the contemporary philosophical literature. I argue that the mechanical interpretation contains an intellectualist bias and then argue a cognitivist view that positions habituation as the only method appropriate to cultivating the starting points of the ethical life. I contend, contrary to the popular view, that the starting points are non-discursive and not subject to explanation, and thus require the non-discursive method of habituation. I conclude with some thoughts for moral education that answer critiques of habituation concerning the role of reasoning and critical independence of students.

The local problem of the soul-body relation can be grasped only against the global background of the relation between Nature and Spirit. This relates to Hegel's naturalism: the idea that there is one single reality - living reality - and... more

The local problem of the soul-body relation can be grasped only against the global background of the relation between Nature and Spirit. This relates to Hegel's naturalism: the idea that there is one single reality - living reality - and different levels of description of it. This implies, moreover, that it is possible to ascribe some form of naturality also to the social body of institutionalized ethical life. Hegel’s position can thus be characterised as a kind of aristotelian social naturalism: this, at bottom, is the combined meaning of the Hegelian theses that soul is the substance of Spirit, and habit its universal form.

and Tomasello (2005) showed that 9-to 18-montholds, but not 6-month-olds, differentiated between people who were unwilling and unable to share toys. As the outcome of the two tasks is the same (i.e., the toy is not shared), the infants... more

and Tomasello (2005) showed that 9-to 18-montholds, but not 6-month-olds, differentiated between people who were unwilling and unable to share toys. As the outcome of the two tasks is the same (i.e., the toy is not shared), the infants must respond to the different goals of the actor. However, visual habituation paradigms have shown an earlier onset of goal awareness. The present study reconciles this disparity by replicating the findings of Behne et al. with both 6-and 9-month-olds, using similar tasks and additional response measures.

Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es eine methodische und transparente Operationalisierung der Grundstrukturen individueller Habitus auf der Grundlage qualitativer biographischer Interviews, die dann theoriegeleitet durch geometrische... more

Ziel dieses Beitrags ist es eine methodische und transparente Operationalisierung der Grundstrukturen individueller Habitus auf der Grundlage qualitativer biographischer Interviews, die dann theoriegeleitet durch geometrische Datenanalysen zu Typen zusammengefasst werden. Derart werden theoretisch rückgebundene und empirisch fundierte Habitustypen konstruiert, die innerhalb der Analyse von Mechanismen der Produktion und Reproduktion sozialer Ungleichheit einsetzbar sind.

Adorno's reading of Hegel's theory of civil society shapes his way of addressing the core question of his critical theory of society: 'Why do social crises not lead to social transformation?' Our chapter investigates the philosophical... more

Adorno's reading of Hegel's theory of civil society shapes his way of addressing the core question of his critical theory of society: 'Why do social crises not lead to social transformation?' Our chapter investigates the philosophical innovations at the heart of Hegel and Adorno's respective approach to the problems revealed by the antagonisms of civil society. We will do this by asking the questions: (1) How does Hegel conceive of the antagonistic structure of civil society? (2) How does Hegel conceive of the way civil society addresses crises of legitimacy? (3) How does Adorno think of the way modern welfare states silence crises of legitimacy? (4) How does Adorno's conception of Bannkreis aim to illuminate the root structure of how all antagonistic societies silence crises of legitimacy? We will thereby focus on the basic antagonism at work in both Adorno's and Hegel's theories of society: the antagonism between the overwhelming power of social orders over individuals, and the fragile power of individuals to demand legitimacy from their social orders. First, we will briefly sketch Adorno's surprisingly affirmative reading of Hegel's theory of civil society. We then go on to assess what role antagonism plays in the latter. We will argue that Hegel sees education (Bildung) as the central operator in reconciling the antagonisms of civil society. This will allow us to take a new look at Adorno's social theory as tracing Bannkreis through a plurality of models, which discloses the reproduction of the social totality as a form of counter-education (Halbbildung). We ultimately argue that Adorno conceptualises Bannkreis as an answer to the question of Hegel's account of world-spirit that revives the insights of Hegel's conception of civil society. We conclude by taking a closer look at how Bildung turns into the counter-education of Bannkreis, and what potential for socially transformative practice this dialogue between Adorno and Hegel uncovers.

The consumption of a food typically leads to a decrease in its subsequent intake through habituation—a decrease in one’s responsiveness to the food and motivation to obtain it. We demonstrated that habituation to a food item can occur... more

The consumption of a food typically leads to a decrease in its subsequent intake through habituation—a decrease in one’s responsiveness to the food and motivation to obtain it.
We demonstrated that habituation to a food item can occur even when its consumption is merely imagined. Five experiments showed that people who repeatedly imagined eating a food (such as cheese) many times subsequently consumed less of the imagined food than did people
who repeatedly imagined eating that food fewer times, imagined eating a different food (such as candy), or did not imagine eating a food. They did so because they desired to eat it less, not because they considered it less palatable. These results suggest that mental representation alone can engender habituation to a stimulus.

In this paper, we propose a model of intertemporal choice that explicitly incorporates satiation due to previous consumption in the evaluation of the utility of current consumption. In the discounted utility (DU) model, the utility of... more

In this paper, we propose a model of intertemporal choice that explicitly incorporates satiation due to previous consumption in the evaluation of the utility of current consumption. In the discounted utility (DU) model, the utility of consumption is evaluated afresh in each time period. In our model, the utility of current consumption represents an incremental utility from the past level. When the time interval between consumption periods is large, and there are, therefore, no carryover effects, our model coincides with the DU model. For short time intervals between consumption periods, the satiation due to previous consumption lowers the utility of current consumption. Several implications of our model are examined, and comparisons with the DU model and the habituation model are made.

Encounters with art can change us in ways both big and small. This paper focuses on one of the more dramatic cases. I argue that works of art can inspire what L. A. Paul calls transformations. Classic examples include getting married,... more

Encounters with art can change us in ways both big and small. This paper focuses on one of the more dramatic cases. I argue that works of art can inspire what L. A. Paul calls transformations. Classic examples include getting married, having a child, and undergoing a religious conversion. Two features distinguish transformations from other changes we undergo. First, they involve the discovery of something new. Second, they result in a change in our core preferences. These two features make transformations hard to motivate. I argue, however, that art can help on both fronts. First, works of art can guide our attempt to imagine unfamiliar ways of living. Second, they can attract us to values we currently reject. I conclude by observing that what makes art powerful also makes it dangerous. Transformations are not always for the good, and art's ability to inspire them can be put to immoral ends.

In a Globalization era, school has to build up a positive culture to prepare Millennial Generation in science, technology and character. The passion of the founders in the school's vision and mission became the basic for building up the... more

In a Globalization era, school has to build up a positive culture to prepare Millennial Generation in science, technology and character. The passion of the founders in the school's vision and mission became the basic for building up the school culture. Every year, there must be a changing of school components, a graduating class, a freshman who will take a new class, and also the teachers and staff. That conditions make them can't work in a same passion and achieve school's goals. Building up the school culture means to build up habits in applying school's values (religiosity, nationalism, independence, mutual cooperation, and integrity), carrying out school rules, having work's habits to achieve the goals of the school. Character education in curriculum 2013, provides a space for school to build up the school culture through the habituation of character education and being a role model. Starting with respect, curiosity, perseverance and courage school culture can be stronger than the previous year and the all school components can bring good influences in the school.

Various attempts have been made to explain why gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) find it difficult to recognize their mirror image. One of the most oft-cited reasons is aversion to eye contact, which stops gorillas from looking into a... more

Various attempts have been made to explain why gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) find it difficult to recognize their mirror image. One of the most oft-cited reasons is aversion to eye contact, which stops gorillas from looking into a mirror and thus prevents them from carrying out a suitable exploration that could lead to self-recognition. In the experimental design used here the subject was first habituated both to observers and to the mirror as an object before being exposed to the latter. The study was performed with a single subject who was well adapted to captivity and exhibited no aberrant behavior or signs of stress. The results revealed that the subject had no aversion to eye contact. He showed considerable interest in the mirror and appeared relaxed when faced with his image. He gave a positive response to the mark test. Am. J. Primatol. 69:576-583, 2007.

Olfactory perception, and especially hedonic evaluation of odors, is highly flexible, but some mechanisms involved in this flexibility remain to be elucidated. In the present study we aimed at better understanding how repeated exposure to... more

Olfactory perception, and especially hedonic evaluation of odors, is highly flexible, but some mechanisms involved in this flexibility remain to be elucidated. In the present study we aimed at better understanding how repeated exposure to odors can affect their pleasantness. We tested the hypothesis of an affective habituation to the stimuli, namely a decrease of emotional intensity over repetitions. More specifically, we tested whether this effect is subject to inter-individual variability and whether it can also be observed at the olfactomotor level. Twenty-six participants took part in the experiment during which they had to smell two odorants, anise and chocolate, presented 20 times each. On each trial, sniff duration and volume were recorded and paired with ratings of odor pleasantness and intensity. For each smell, we distinguished between "likers" and "dislikers," namely individuals giving positive and negative initial hedonic evaluations. Results showed a significant decrease in pleasantness with time when the odor was initially pleasant ("likers"), while unpleasantness remained stable or slightly decreased when the odor was initially unpleasant ("dislikers"). This deviation toward neutrality was interpreted as affective habituation. This effect was all the more robust as it was observed for both odors and corroborated by sniffing, an objective measurement of odor pleasantness. Affective habituation to odors can be interpreted as an adaptive response to stimuli that prove over time to be devoid of positive or negative outcome on the organism. This study contributes to a better understanding of how olfactory preferences are shaped through exposure, depending on the individual's own initial perception of the odor.

The last part of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) habituation process of the Taï South Group was monitored over 2 years (1994)(1995)(1996), during which all males and most of the females became habituated to observation by humans. The... more

The last part of the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) habituation process of the Taï South Group was monitored over 2 years (1994)(1995)(1996), during which all males and most of the females became habituated to observation by humans. The time needed (5-7 years) to habituate the community was similar to that recorded for the Taï North Group and is comparable to other populations studied in Africa. Variation emerged in habituation rate: males were habituated earlier than females, and among females, sexually cycling individuals were habituated faster than non-cycling females. Such differences may be a function of both the methods used to find the chimpanzees and the sex of the individual. Reproductive status and individuality may also have influenced habituation rates by affecting the number of contacts required to habituate a chimpanzee to neutral humans.

Diversos estudos envolvendo gatos domésticos têm sido realizados sem que antes haja a habituação entre o pesquisador e os animais. Esta situação não é ideal, pois o estresse gerado pela presença de um desconhecido pode interferir... more

Diversos estudos envolvendo gatos domésticos têm sido realizados sem que antes haja a habituação entre o pesquisador e os animais. Esta situação não é ideal, pois o estresse gerado pela presença de um desconhecido pode interferir negativamente nos resultados do estudo e, mais importante, reduzir o nível de bem-estar dos animais envolvidos. Não são conhecidos trabalhos formais traçando um modelo de habituação neste contexto. Assim, o presente estudo objetivou avaliar o processo de habituação de gatos domésticos adultos, em cativeiro, durante a interação com o homem, a partir de uma sequência de testes que possam ser utilizados para minimizar as interferências negativas desta interação em situações futuras. Três testes com duração de quatro dias

Numerous studies have shown that exposure to media violence increases aggression, though the mechanisms of this eVect have remained elusive. One theory posits that repeated exposure to media violence desensitizes viewers to real world... more

Numerous studies have shown that exposure to media violence increases aggression, though the mechanisms of this eVect have remained elusive. One theory posits that repeated exposure to media violence desensitizes viewers to real world violence, increasing aggression by blunting aversive reactions to violence and removing normal inhibitions against aggression. Theoretically, violence desensitization should be reXected in the amplitude of the P300 component of the event-related brain potential (ERP), which has been associated with activation of the aversive motivational system. In the current study, violent images elicited reduced P300 amplitudes among violent, as compared to nonviolent video game players. Additionally, this reduced brain response predicted increased aggressive behavior in a later task. Moreover, these eVects held after controlling for individual diVerences in trait aggressiveness. These data are the Wrst to link media violence exposure and aggressive behavior to brain processes hypothetically associated with desensitization.

Images of Black Americans are becoming remarkably diverse, enabling Barack Obama to defy simple-minded stereotypes and succeed. Understood through the Stereotype Content Model's demonstrably fundamental trait dimensions of perceived... more

Images of Black Americans are becoming remarkably diverse, enabling Barack Obama to defy simple-minded stereotypes and succeed. Understood through the Stereotype Content Model's demonstrably fundamental trait dimensions of perceived warmth and competence, images of Black Americans show three relevant patterns. Stereotyping by omission allows non-Blacks to accentuate the positive, excluding any lingering negativity but implying it by its absence; specifically, describing Black Americans as gregarious and passionate suggests warmth but ignores competence and implies its lack. Obama's credentials prevented him from being cast as incompetent, though the experience debate continued. His legendary calm and passionate charisma saved him on the warmth dimension. Social class subtypes for Black Americans differentiate dramatically between low-income Blacks and Black professionals, among both non-Black and Black samples. Obama clearly fit the moderately warm, highly competent Black-professional subtype. Finally, the campaign's events (and nonevents) allowed voter habituation to overcome non-Blacks' automatic emotional vigilance to Black Americans.

In this study, pain perception, somatosensory event-related potential (SERP) and skin conductance response (SCR) changes during hypnotic suggestions of Deep Relaxation, Dissociated Imagery, Focused Analgesia, and Placebo, compared with a... more

In this study, pain perception, somatosensory event-related potential (SERP) and skin conductance response (SCR) changes during hypnotic suggestions of Deep Relaxation, Dissociated Imagery, Focused Analgesia, and Placebo, compared with a Waking baseline condition, were investigated. SERPs were recorded from frontal, temporal, central, and parietal scalp sites. Ten high, 9 mid, and 10 low hypnotizable right-handed women participated in the experiment. The following measures were obtained: (1) pain and distress tolerance ratings; (2) sensory and pain thresholds to biphasic electrical stimulation delivered to the right wrist; (3) reaction time and number of omitted responses; (4) N2 (280^11 ms) and P3 (405^19 ms) peak amplitudes of SERPs to target stimuli delivered using an odd-ball paradigm; (5) number of evoked SCRs and SCR amplitudes as a function of stimulus repetition. Results showed, high, mid and low hypnotizables exhibited signi®cant reductions of reported pain and distress ratings during conditions of Deep Relaxation/Suggestion of Analgesia, Dissociated Imagery and Focused Analgesia. High hypnotizable subjects displayed signi®cant reductions in pain and distress levels compared to mid and low hypnotizables during Dissociated Imagery, Focused Analgesia and, to a lesser degree, during Deep Relaxation. Placebo condition did not display signi®cant differences among hypnotizability groups. High hypnotizables, compared to mid and low hypnotizables, also showed signi®cant increases in sensory and pain thresholds during Dissociated Imagery and Focused Analgesia. High, mid, and low groups showed signi®cant reductions in P3 peak amplitudes across all hypnosis conditions and, to a lesser degree, during Placebo. The temporal cortical region was the most sensitive in differentiating SERP responses among hypnotizability groups. On this recording area the subjects highly susceptible to hypnosis displayed signi®cantly smaller P3 and greater N2 peaks during Focused Analgesia than did the other hypnotizable groups. In this condition highly susceptible subjects also reported the highest number of omitted responses and the shortest Reaction Times. These subjects also showed faster habituation of SCRs when compared with mid and low hypnotizables. During Dissociated Imagery and Focused Analgesia, highly hypnotizable subjects also disclosed a smaller total number of evoked SCRs than did mid and low hypnotizable subjects. The results are discussed considering possible common and different mechanisms to account for the effects of different hypnotic suggestions.

In this letter, a preliminary study of habituation in self-organizing networks is reported. The habituation model implemented allows us to obtain a faster learning process and better clustering performances. The habituable neuron is a... more

In this letter, a preliminary study of habituation in self-organizing networks is reported. The habituation model implemented allows us to obtain a faster learning process and better clustering performances. The habituable neuron is a generalization of the typical neuron and can be used in many self-organizing network models. The habituation mechanism is implemented in a SOM and the clustering performances of the network are compared to the conscience learning mechanism that follows roughly the same principle but is less sophisticated.

The orienting reflex (OR), elicited by an innocuous stimulus, can be regarded as a model of the organism's interaction with its environment, and has been described as the unit of attentional processing. A major determinant of the OR is... more

The orienting reflex (OR), elicited by an innocuous stimulus, can be regarded as a model of the organism's interaction with its environment, and has been described as the unit of attentional processing. A major determinant of the OR is the novelty of the eliciting stimulus, generally operationalised in terms of its reduction with stimulus repetition, the effects of which are commonly described in habituation terms. This paper provides an overview of a research programme, spanning more than 30 years, investigating psychophysiological aspects of the OR in humans. The major complication in this research is that the numerous physiological measures used as dependent variables in the OR context fail to jointly covary with stimulus parameters. This has led to the development of the Preliminary Process Theory (PPT) of the OR to accommodate the complexity of the observed stimulus-response patterns. PPT is largely grounded in autonomic measures, and current work is attempting to integrate electroencephalographic measures, particularly components in the event-related brain potentials reflecting aspects of stimulus processing. The emphasis in the current presentation is on the use of the defining criteria of the habituation phenomenon, and Groves and Thompson's Dual-process Theory, in the development of PPT.

The Buddha’s Eightfold Path is training or purification of the mind, involving a range of unconscious processes, by creating new schemata and then reinforcing those new mental codifications with habituation. The techniques he taught help... more

The Buddha’s Eightfold Path is training or purification of the mind, involving a range of unconscious processes, by creating new schemata and then reinforcing those new mental codifications with habituation. The techniques he taught help us recognize and then transform our codified perceptual and cognitive biases and unwholesome and unskillful habits of mind. With the recent discovery of synaptic plasticity and how connections between neural systems are constantly being changed by the experience, we now appreciate how Bhavana or mental culture promotes learning. By changing our perspective of an object (physical or mental), we change our mental state. This might mean changing a negative view to a positive one. So, as we become more aware or mindful of our patterns of reactivity and then change a reaction, such learning, has physiological consequences and, with habituation, lasting change in the neural substrate does occur. We have seen in the Buddha’s psychology that the mind is conditioned by the objects of attention. We attend which conditions our emotional response- we desire or don’t desire it – then we identify with it or reject it. While objects which are physical are more commonplace, abstract things like ideas or concepts can be powerful in conditioning our mental states. With intensive training, humans can become free agents, able to choose their own destiny and to become aware of and act according to a moral and ethical framework. The Buddha gives us a clear insight into the possible development of uplifting potentialities of inherent in our nature.

Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis) is a promising aquaculture candidate, but the growth performance of this non-domesticated species may be negatively affected by its stress responsiveness to intensive culture conditions. To evaluate this... more

Eurasian perch (Perca fluviatilis) is a promising aquaculture candidate, but the growth performance of this non-domesticated species may be negatively affected by its stress responsiveness to intensive culture conditions. To evaluate this potential problem, juvenile Eurasian perch were exposed to a standardized handling stressor twice a week for an 8-week period. A similar study was conducted on domesticated rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) for comparison of intra-and inter-specific differences. The stressed fish of both species showed lower body growth than the non-stressed control fish, however, the final mean body mass was 35.4% lower in the stressed Eurasian perch than in the nonstressed controls, compared to 22.8% difference between the two groups in rainbow trout. The stress responsiveness was examined by comparing the post-stress cortisol and glucose levels in repeatedly stressed fish and fish exposed to the stressor only once. The cortisol stress response in both species strongly indicated a habituation to the repeated stressor. Thus, repeatedly stressed Eurasian perch reached maximum cortisol levels of 130 ng/mL after 0.5 h compared to 200 ng/mL in the fish stressed once, while considerably smaller differences in cortisol levels were shown between the repeatedly and single stressed rainbow trout. Rainbow trout also showed lower post-stress glucose levels in the repeatedly stressed fish compared to the single stressed fish. In contrast, the glucose levels in both groups of Eurasian perch increased abruptly after stress treatment and remained elevated at approximately 19 mM for 6 h; levels were three times as high as the peak levels 3 h post-stress in rainbow trout. Together, the habituation of the stress response shown in both species did not eliminate the growth difference found in the repeatedly stressed fish versus the control fish. Further, the lower growth performance of Eurasian perch compared to rainbow trout could partly be due to the increased energy consumption in the more stress responsive Eurasian perch. D

Acupuncture modulation of activity in the human brainstem is not well known. This structure is plagued by physiological artifact in neuroimaging experiments. In addition, most studies have used short (<15min) block designs, which miss... more

Acupuncture modulation of activity in the human brainstem is not well known. This structure is plagued by physiological artifact in neuroimaging experiments. In addition, most studies have used short (<15min) block designs, which miss delayed responses following longer duration stimulation. We used brainstem-focused cardiac-gated fMRI and evaluated time-variant brain response to longer duration (>30min) stimulation with verum (VA, electrostimulation at acupoint ST-36) or sham point (SPA, non-acupoint electrostimulation) acupuncture. Our results provide evidence that acupuncture modulates brainstem nuclei important to endogenous monoaminergic and opioidergic systems. Specifically, VA modulated activity in the substantia nigra (SN), nucleus raphe magnus, locus ceruleus, nucleus cuneiformis, and periaqueductal gray (PAG). Activation in the ventrolateral PAG was greater for VA compared to SPA. Linearly decreasing time-variant activation, suggesting classical habituation, was found in response to both VA and SPA in sensorimotor (SII, insula, premotor cortex) brain regions. However, VA also produced linearly time-variant activity in limbic regions (amygdala, hippocampus, and SN), which was bimodal and not likely habituation -consisting of activation in early blocks, and deactivation by the end of the run. Thus, acupuncture induces different brain response early, compared to 20-30min after stimulation. We attribute the fMRI differences between VA and SPA to more varied and stronger psychophysical response induced by VA. Our study demonstrates that acupuncture modulation of brainstem structures can be studied noninvasively in humans, allowing for comparison to animal studies. Our protocol also demonstrates a fMRI approach to study habituation and other time-variant phenomena over longer time durations.

Kant posits the schema as a hybrid bridging the generality of pure concepts and the particularity of sensible intuitions. However, I argue that countenancing such schemata leads to a third-man regress. Siding with those who think that the... more

Kant posits the schema as a hybrid bridging the generality of pure concepts and the particularity of sensible intuitions. However, I argue that countenancing such schemata leads to a third-man regress. Siding with those who think that the midway posit of the Critique of Pure Reason's schematism section is untenable, my diagnosis is that Kant's transcendental inquiry goes awry because it attempts to analyze a form/matter union that is primitive. I therefore sketch a nonrepresentational stance aimed at respecting this primitivity.

onwards we focused on one gorilla group: the Munye. During the habituation process, it became increasingly easier to locate and to remain with the gorillas. Their initial reactions of aggression, fear and vocalization upon contact were... more

onwards we focused on one gorilla group: the Munye. During the habituation process, it became increasingly easier to locate and to remain with the gorillas. Their initial reactions of aggression, fear and vocalization upon contact were replaced increasingly by ignoring us. Curiosity appeared to be an intermediate stage in the process. The way in which contacts with the Munye ended became more subdued over time. Regular daily contact is important in promoting habituation. Likewise, contacting gorillas while they are in a tree or in dense forest provides positive results compared to open habitat. Contacts within 10 m and contacts without forewarning the gorillas of observer presence, e.g., via tongue clacking, should be avoided. As of December 1999, habituation had progressed well; habituation of western gorillas is feasible. However, the gorillas experience negative effects during the habituation process, showing, for example, an increase in daily path length, and reactions of aggression, fear and vocalization upon contact. Impacts diminish Blom, Cipolletta, Brunsting, and Prins over time. Given these and other potentially negative effects, the decision to begin habituation should not be taken lightly.