Iron Age IIA (Levant) Research Papers (original) (raw)

בשנים האחרונות עדויות ארכיאולוגיות מגוונות
מצביעות על כך שהתפתחות התרבות הפלשתית
הייתה מורכבת ורבת פנים. מגוון ממצאים מעידים
שהאוכלוסייה בפלשת בראשית תקופת הברזל לא
הייתה בעלת מקור אחיד מאזור הים האיגאי, אלא
הייתה מורכבת, ככל הנראה, מקבוצות מגוונות
ממקורות שונים, מרחבי מזרח אגן הים התיכון.
מגוון ההשפעות התרבותיות הניכרות בתרבות
החומרית הפלשתית, לא רק מתרבויות הים האיגאי, הוא סממן
ברור לעניין. בהרצאה זו, אתמקד בממצאים שונים
מהתחום הפולחני והקבורה בתל צפית/גת מראשית
א(, ובמה ניתן ללמוד II וברזל I תקופת הברזל )ברזל
מכך על מקורותיה ועל רב־גוניותה של התרבות
הפלשתית.

באחד ממכלולי הצור ממוצא נמצאה עדות ויזואלית לטכנולוגיית חימום צור. ניתוח מעמיק של פריטי צור מהשכבה הארכיאולוגית המתוארכת לתקופה הניאוליתית הקראמית המאוחרת מעיד על שימוש אינטנסיבי בחימום צור באתר. מהתצפיות עולה שעיקר החימום יועד לטיפול בחלוקים ובגרעינים עבור הפקת להבונים. מסקנות אלה מבוססות על פרוטוקול העוסק בזיהוי של מאפיינים חיצוניים בצור שחומם. שיטה זו מאפשרת את זיהויה של תופעת חימום הצור באתר וכמו כן את עיתוי פעולת החימום בין שלבי הסיתות. ניתוח זה מאפשר הסתכלות בזווית אחרת על ניתוח מכלולי צור במוצא ובאתרים פרהיסטוריים אחרים ומשפר את ההבנה של תהליכים התנהגותיים אשר התרחשו באתר בימי קדם.

Article presents the results of rescue excavations conducted by the authors on behalf of the Antiquities Authority on the northwestern outskirts of the Roman city of Paneas (Caesarea Philippi). The excavations exposed part of a suburban cemetery dated to the Roman period, with several sealed tombs found empty of any archaeological or osteological remains. Two peculiar square stone-built burial structures were exposed in the immediate vicinity and were identified as monumental tombs. Whereas one of the monuments was discovered empty, the other contained a large cooking pot with cremated human remains. The characteristics of these monuments, previously unattested in the archaeological record of Israel, seem to be inspired by the funerary architecture of the Palmyrene region typified by its well-known “tower-tomb” structures.

This paper presents, for the first time, an analysis of the early Iron Age IIA occupation at 'En Ḥ az ̣eva. A series of radiocarbon measurements from short-lived samples obtained from the site's earlier occupation levels (Strata VIII-VII) were all dated to the 10th century BCE. It is noteworthy, that Stratum VII occupies the second half of the 10th century BCE exclusively, with its final phase around 900 BCE. Fixing the site's absolute chronology has far-reaching implications, enabling the placement of the early Iron Age IIA settlement within the broader historical context. Situated c. 20 kilometres from the most significant copper industry centre in the Levant-Khirbet en-Nahas, 'En Ḥ az ̣eva enjoyed a strategic location in the transport network of copper through the Negev Highlands and the Beer-Sheba Valley to the Mediterranean seaports. It is claimed that the economic prosperity related to copper production at Khirbet en-Nahas during the early Iron Age IIA was 'En Ḥ az ̣eva's raison d'être.

The paper responds to an essay by Yuval Gadot, Asaf Kleiman and Joe Uziel, in which the authors conclude that Judah was autonomous and independent of Samaria due to a lack of connections in the material culture. The paper formulates... more

The thesis focuses on Jerusalem’s fortification lines during the Seleucid rule and at the beginning of the Hasmonaean reign. The research question focused on the unveiling of the changes in the outline of Jerusalem’s fortifications as a base for the reconstruction of the city’s urban plan. This served as a basis for discussing the history of the city and as a test case for studying the characteristics of the art of siege warfare and military architecture in the southern Levant, namely Koilē Syria and Phoinikē. In order to answer the research question, three main discussion topics were defined. Firstly, the fundamental aspect of the evolution process of the fortification lines in Jerusalem and its changes and transformations over time was dealt using archaeological tools. On this basis an additional layer of the historical context of each of the reconstructed fortification phase was discussed. In this framework I have discussed associated issues related to construction activities and siege combats mentioned in written historical sources; namely, the location of the Seleucid citadel known as the ‘Akra’, an analysis of Antiochus VII Sidetes’ siege, as well as an attempt to decipher the framework for the foundation of the latest fortification line which surrounded the two southern hills of Jerusalem.

Khirbet el-Ḥamam is a site in northwestern Samaria whose remains, dating from the tenth century BCE to the second century CE, indicate that it was a substantial settlement in the region. Adam Zertal, the original excavator, identified it as biblical Arubboth. This article presents an updated description of the site's Hellenistic-Roman period reservoirs, only partially described in previous research, and an analysis of the water system's strategic importance during the Roman siege of the town. In addition, an earlier, previously unknown water system is presented, which is suggested to belong to the Iron Age II town. Examining the reservoirs as strategic urban assets provides an updated perspective on the site's history.

צנירים
סלעיים או מצוקיים. בישראל מוכרים צנירים בכל האזור הים תיכוני, עד ספר המדבר. במסגרת העבודה
הנוכחית מופו בכרמל 127 צנירים. הם מרוכזים ב 7- אגני ניקוז, ונמצאים בין 56 ל 428- מטרים מעל פני
הים. רוב הצנירים חתורים לאורך המדרונות הבונים את ערוצי הנחלים וניתן למצוא אותם עד לגבהים של
270 מטרים מעל הערוץ. הצנירים מפותחים רק בסלעי דולומיט או גיר קשים המאופיינים בבלייה קרסטית;
בעיקר בתצורות יגור ובינה. אורך מקטעי הצנירים נע בין מטרים ספורים ל 200- מטר; גובהם ועומקם
הממוצע נמדד ל 3-2- מטרים אך עשוי להגיע עד 9.5 מטרים. הצנירים מפותחים לאורך שכבות מוגדרות
ואינם חותכים בניצב או באלכסון להן. 65% מהצנירים בעלי רכיב מפנה מערבי, ורומזים בכך לקשר עם
מערכות הגשם המגיעות מהים התיכון. לא נמצא קשר בין ממדי חלל הצניר לבין הרום, גובהו מעל האפיק
או שיפוע המדרון. הצנירים מופיעים בכל הגבהים, ללא העדפה למפלסי רום מסויימים.
התהליכים הגאומורפיים הפועלים לבניית צניר משלבים בלייה כימית, מכנית וביוגנית. בשלב הראשון, מים
חודרים בקו השיכוב בין שתי שכבות בעלות כושר מסיסות שונה, ממיסים ויוצרים התקערות ראשונית
(צניר עוברי). בשלב השני, בפני הדופן של הצניר העוברי נוצרים סדקים רדודים ומקבילים המורחבים על
ידי המסה, על ידי חרסיות שנלכדות בתוכם, ובסיוע אפשרי של שורשים ואורגניזמים חיים אחרים. תהליך
שעוביים נע ממספר (flake weathering, exfoliation) הסידוק המקביל יוצר התקלפות ופירוק לשבבים
מ"מ ועד למעלה מ 10- ס"מ. התהליך הגאומורפי העיקרי הפועל לנסיגת שכבת גג הצניר היא קריסה
.(rockfall) והתמוטטות

- by Amos Frumkin
- •
- Geomorphology, Karst Geomorphology
- by Shlomo Lotan
- •

Abstract
A pair of pillars built by King Solomon was placed prominently before the façade of the Temple. Mystery surrounds the pillars’ significance and many questions are raised: what was the reason for erecting them? Why were they given names when no other item of the Temple was given a name? What is the interpretation of the names Jachin and Boaz? Why and when have the pillars disappeared from the Temple’s view? Why Ezekiel, who served as a priest at the Temple, did not refer to the pillars in his vision of the future Temple (Ezek 40-43), even though he devoted four full chapters to detailed description of the Temple and its surroundings? And why the pillars are not part of the second Temple?
The solution suggested in this thesis is that the two pillars represent two separate beliefs which were widespread among the people of Israel during the early kingdom period. This ideological–religious division, is the cause of the geographical division between Israel the Elohistic in the north and Judah the Yahwistic in the south. The northern tribes worshiped a deity named “El” while in the south they worshiped a deity named “Yahweh”. “El” was the God of the patriarchs, while "Yahweh" revealed himself to Moses at Sinai (Exodus 6:3). These two beliefs were in essence monotheistic. Nevertheless, there was an ideological gap between them which brought about the division which lasted up to the fall of the northern kingdom in 722 BCE.
King Solomon, wishing to unite the people, established ruling institutions headed by one common Temple. The pillars Jachin and Boaz acted as an open declaration that the Temple was dedicated to the two deities: Jachin represented "Yahweh" while Boaz represented “El”.

- by David C Shapira
- •

Ḥ orvat Tevet is a small site located in the northeastern margins of the Jezreel Valley. During the late Iron IIA (9th century BCE) a large, public, pillared building was erected on the site's summit, with areas dedicated to agricultural processing and craft specializations around it. In light of evidence from the pottery assemblages, the faunal remains, and the various means of production detected at the site, we argue that Ḥ orvat Tevet served as an administrative centre of a royal estate within early monarchic Israel. We further discuss the archaeological evidence for royal estates in the southern Levant during the Late Bronze Age and its meaning for the origins of royal economy in early monarchic Israel.

- by Omer Sergi
- •
- Biblical Archaeology, Ancient economy, Iron Age, Archaeology of the Southern Levant

This book may not be reproduced, in whole or in part, in any form (beyond that permitted by copyright law) without the publisher's written permission. This applies particularly to reproductions, translations and storage and processing in electronic systems. The book was printed on non-aging paper by Gulde Druck in Tübingen, and bound by Buchbinderei Spinner in Ottersweier.

- by Yifat Thareani
- •
- Biblical Archaeology, Iron Age IIA (Levant), Aramaeans

In 1994, an underground tunnel was discovered by chance in Acre. The tunnel had undergone several adaptations over the years, and today it has three sections exhibiting similar characteristics: a western section, roofed with a single vault; a central section, which includes a large elevated hall; and an eastern section roofed with two vaults. The total length of the tunnel is 170 m and much of it is now open to the public. The tunnel was hewn from west to east along a natural rock fissure replete with seawater springs that fill the tunnel with water as high as the sea level. The base of the tunnel is hewn into the calcareous sandstone, locally termed Kurkar rock and the upper part is built. Investigation of the tunnel revealed numerous architectural elements, such as the 'guard room' and staircase, drainage openings, cisterns, chisel marks and an unusual installation sealing its eastern end. The discovery and interpretation of these features sheds new light on most of the topics discussed in the article. For some time, the academic community has been content with the tunnel's interpretation as an underground passage to the Crusader Templar quarter and possibly also to the port, while not investigating other possibilities. In this article, we offer a renewed interpretation as to the tunnel's original function and its subsequent uses in later periods, without ignoring the obvious conclusion that the tunnel was an alternative access passage to the Templar quarter. The article further proposes an earlier date for the tunnel's construction than has previously been recognized. Key Words: Tunnel, Templar, Acre (‘Akko) port, flushing channel, Crusaders, Ptolemais.

- by Yinon Shivtiel
- •

The destruction of Iron I Megiddo in the early 10th century BCE was a momentous event in the history of the southern Levant. It marked an abrupt break in the long cultural development of the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Despite extensive field research, essential questions related to this event remain unanswered, especially regarding the processes that took place in the city immediately before its destruction. In this article, findings from recent excavations in the southeastern sector of the mound, where a detailed Iron I stratigraphic sequence was explored, are reported. In addition, finds from two nearby areas previously excavated were re-evaluated, focusing mostly on contextual aspects of the osteological data. This study sheds light on the deterioration of the city in the decades preceding its final demise, and suggests that the event was caused by human agents rather than a natural disaster. It also hints that in its last days, Megiddo may have been besieged, which explains the peculiar reappearance of intra-mural burials at the site. The case of Iron I Megiddo provides a high-resolution snapshot of actions taken by the inhabitants of a Near Eastern city on the eve of a major crisis.

- by Erin Hall and +2
- •
- Iron Age (Archaeology), Megiddo, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Crisis Archaeology and Understanding Destruction
- by Baruch Brandl
- •
- History, Ancient History, Archaeology, Levant

מאמר זה כתבתי ב-19 לנובמבר 2018 בעקבות התפטרותו של אביגדור ליברמן מהממשלה לאור דחיית תוכניתו להכפיל אוכלוסיית העיר קלקיליה והצעתו למסור שטחי מדינת ישראל באזור זיכרון יעקב וחדרה לרשות הפלסטינית. מדובר היה על האפשרות לשקם ואף להרחיב את... more

מאמר זה כתבתי ב-19 לנובמבר 2018 בעקבות התפטרותו של אביגדור ליברמן מהממשלה לאור דחיית תוכניתו להכפיל אוכלוסיית העיר קלקיליה והצעתו למסור שטחי מדינת ישראל באזור זיכרון יעקב וחדרה לרשות הפלסטינית.
מדובר היה על האפשרות לשקם ואף להרחיב את היישובים היהודיים בצפון השומרון שפונו במסגרת ביצוע תוכנית ההתנתקות.

- by David Ben-Shlomo
- •
- by Andrei Aioanei and +1
- •
- Semiotics, Levantine Archaeology, Symbolism (Religion), Peircean Semiotics

A broken incense altar found in Tel Dotan in 2013 as well as graves and human bones inserted into the ground near it teach about Josiah's reform that took place there. The article reviews another eight sites where there may be evidence of... more

- by יואל אליצור
- •
- Hebrew Bible, Biblical Archaeology, Tumuli, Megiddo

Some 800 m northeast of Barqai Junction, along the route of the Cross-Israel Highway, an extensive quarry was exposed. The quarry, dated to the Roman and Byzantine periods based on the quarrying technique and ceramic finds, was used to quarry hard nari limestone, which was suitable for construction. The quarrying activity created steps or terraces. The detachment method included the separation of the stone’s sides from the bedrock and then its extraction by pulling the stone sideways. A rough calculation of the material extracted from the various quarrying locations is also attempted.

- by Amir Gorzalczany
- •
- Landscape Archaeology, Ancient Quarrying

מטרת מאמר זה לבחון את נכסי המורשת התרבותית בקיבוצים כפר גלעדי ואיילת השחר לאור התמורות שחלו במעמדו של התיעוד ובתרומתו בעיצוב זהותם של שני הקיבוצים. התיעוד חשף שלצד המורשת המשקפת את האתוס הקיבוצי קיים גם נרטיב שנשכח, על חלקה של יק"א בקביעת... more

- by Yael Alef and +1
- •
- Cultural Heritage Conservation
- by Miriam Pines
- •
- by Roey Nickelsberg
- •
- Geography, Archaeology, Rural, Caravanserais

In the large-scale excavations conducted in recent years east of Tel Yavne, many finds from the Roman period were discovered. At the same time as the remains of the settlement that existed in the place throughout the first centuries AD, the cemeteries of the city are being uncovered. Five cemeteries have been discovered, different in size and scattered in adjacent and distant areas from the ancient city. The use of the cemeteries continued for a long time and three layers of burial were identified (1st -8th centuries AD).
The residents of the city buried their dead in different ways, and in different parts of the cemetery there are many similarities and differences in the types of burials.
This article will focus on the differences and commonalities between all of these assemblages while raising possible explanations for the various phenomena. We will present the different types of burials discovered in the excavations conducted in 2019-2022 and the burial customs practiced in the city of Yavne during the Roman period.

- by Alla Nagorsky and +2
- •
- Romanian Studies, Archaeology of burials
- by daniel varga and +1
- •
- Metallurgy, Chalcolithic Archaeology, Ancient Ascalon / Ashkelon
- by Ariel Winderbaum
- •
- Iron Age pottery, Iron Age IIA (Levant), Archaeology of Jerusalem
- by Yigal Tepper and +1
- •
- Ancient Quarrying, Limestone Quarries, History of Eretz Israel, Ancient Roman Quarries

This article presents Building 100 - a public building that was uncovered at the "Givati Parking Lot" excavation site, located on the northwestern slope of the southeastern ridge, a short distance from the Opheel and the Temple Mount. We show evidence of wealth accumulation and its display during the Iron Age IIB-C. We offer to recognize the building as a bureau לשכה

- by Yuval Gadot and +2
- •
- Biblical Archaeology, Bronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology), Jerusalem Archaeology

The archaeological excavations at the Ophel site between 2009-2013, headed by Dr. Eilat Mazar, uncovered, for the first time in the history of Jerusalem, layers with buildings-some of them monumental-that were in use throughout the Iron I, Iron IIA, and Early Iron IIB. These buildings are of great importance due to their location on the southern slopes of the Temple Mount. In this article I review these buildings, the relation between them, their date and their function. I then attempt to reconstruct a picture of Jerusalem and Judah in these formative periods.

- by Ariel Winderbaum
- •
- Biblical Archaeology, Iron Age, Jerusalem, Jerusalem Archaeology
- by Shawn Bubel
- •
- Cultural Studies, Archaeology, Art, Pottery

The recent excavations at Ḥorvat Tevet and the finding of ca. 260 Late Iron IIA cylindrical holemouth jars provided an unparalleled opportunity to study these relatively unknown vessels. This article offers a comprehensive analysis of cylindrical holemouth jars and includes a study of typology and morphology, alongside the analysis of provenance and distribution patterns. By shedding new light on these vessels, this paper provides the opportunity to understand and illustrate the economy of early monarchic Israel in a new and innovative way.

- by Madeleine Butcher and +2
- •
- Archaeology, Pottery (Archaeology), Ceramic Petrography, Ancient Israel
- by Shua Kisilevitz
- •
- Iconography, Israelite Religion, Figurines, Terracotta Figurines

A fragment of a painted figurine depicting a female drummer was found in an Iron IIA context at Tel Abel Beth Maacah in Upper Galilee. This article presents the context, iconography, and technology of the figurine and discusses its cultural and chronological significance. The article is published in the festschrift for Beth Alpert Nakahi and is dedicated to her important scholarship on gender in archaeology.

- by Nava Panitz-Cohen
- •
- Archaeology, Gender, Terracotta Figurines, Iron Age IIA (Levant)
- by Aren M . Maeir
- •
- History, Archaeology, Israel/Palestine, Biblical Studies

A summary of a presentation given at the Young-Researchers Annual conference of the Land of Israel's-Studies and Archaeology department at Bar-Ilan University.

- by Noam Bar-David
- •
- Inscriptions

Petrographic analysis of Iron IIA Negev Highlands pottery revealed that the clay used in some of the vessels was tempered with copper smelting slag. Here we show, using lead isotope analysis, that the slag was likely a byproduct of the contemporaneous smelting operations at Faynan, Jordan. We substantiate previous observations regarding the connection between settlements in the Negev Highlands and the mining and smelting operations in Wadi Arabah.

- by yigal erel
- •

DESCRIPTION עבודת סמינריון שהינה בסיס לתיזה בנושא טכנולוגיות בנייה של טרסות

- by Ido Rosental
- •
- Conservation, Traditional Crafts, Israel, Dry Stone
- by Ayala Amir
- •

In 2017, during a salvage excavation carried out by the Department of Antiquities and Cultural Heritage of Palestine, an Iron Age shaft tomb close to the site of Khirbet Bir el-Kharayib in Central Palestine came to light. The funerary equipment of the tomb goes within the Iron Age IIA pottery tradition. Vessels of this period primarily consist of Red Slip Ware bowls and juglets, Black Slip Ware juglets, Simple Ware jars, jugs and juglets, and Cooking Ware pots. A Bichrome Ware jug, a bronze bowl and a zoomorphic figurine complete the funerary set.

- by Awni Shawamra
- •
- History, Iron Age Levant, Vicino Oriente, Iron Age IIA (Levant)

The paper attempts to integrate the study of the manufacture, function and discard of chalices from three sites in Philistia in order to form a coherent 'life-cycle story' of this vessel type. The analyses include examination of the sources of the ceramic raw material using petrography; study of the modes of manufacture, employing visual inspection and ethnographic data; and examination of the function of these vessels, using organic residue analysis. By combining these analytic perspectives, the authors shed new light on cultic practices in Iron Age Philistia and offer an alternative view of Philistine identity.

- by Israel Finkelstein
- •
- Archaeology of Ancient Israel, Archaeology of cult

מאמר זה מציג מודל קונספטואלי של מערכת ניטור אזורית לשטחי מדינת ישראל והאזורים הסמוכים בים. מודל זה מבוסס על שיטות מודרניות של חישה מרחוק של הים ועיבוד נתונים במערכות מידע גאוגרפי (GIS), כשהמטרה העיקרית היא לנטר איומים על הביטחון הימי של... more

- by Tzachi Lang
- •
- Archaeology