Ironworking Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

The 18th century water-powered ironworks at Agoreggi, in the Basque country, was reconstructed based on contemporary historical records and archaeological investigations. In 1994-1999 three campaigns of experiments were carried out with the aim of reproducing the scale and technology of the iron production. This paper is a fully illustrated description of the experiments and, in particular, of the practical problems of the air delivery system and the use of the copper tobera (tuyere). In 1999 six agoas (blooms) were made of varying quality and size, the largest being a 30kg ferritic agoa smelted from 140kg of ore, but this is only about half the scale of the 18th century production.
It subsequently transpired that the mouth of the tobera used for the experiments should have been 170% larger, thus allowing more air to be blown into the furnace, and the making of agoas closer to the 18th century size. See Crew 2013, 'Twenty five years of bloomery experiments...', pages [46-48], for an overview of the experiments and a brief discussion of the tobera problem.

- by
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Industrial History, Industrial Heritage

In 1987 to 1989 15 experiments were carried out, smelting bog-iron ores in a low shaft furnace. The data from XP13 to XP28 are presented, with quantifications of the smelting and of the refining to billets and bars. Analyses of the bog ores are given. Metallurgical analyses, micrographs and P maps of the blooms from XP22 and XP23 are given, and analyses of the billet from XP17 and the bar from XP16. Line traces for P, As, Co and Ni, across the XP16 bar show the segregation of the P and the surface enrichment of As and Ni.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Archaeometry, Archaeometallurgy, Paleometallurgy

This PPT was presented at the 2009 'World of Iron' conference. It is a comparative study of bloomery iron made from different ores, refined to bars and forged to knives, looking at the metallography and the slag inclusions. This conference presentation has a wider range of images than could be used in the 2013 published version. The second file has a descriptive text.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Archaeometallurgy, Paleometallurgy, Ironworking

This abstract presents pollen diagrams from peat bogs near to the Llwyn Du and Gelli Goch medieval bloomeries. They show variation in the tree pollen assemblages and microscopic charcoal, which can be linked to the ironworking activity at these sites. Geochemical data from a nearby upland peat bog is also presented, showing elevated lead concentrations during the Roman period and significant pollution from various metals during more recent time.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Palaeoenvironment, Environmental Archaeology, Medieval Wales, Paleometallurgy

Danebury is one of the more extensively excavated hillforts in Britain and the nearly 500 iron objects found are one of the largest assemblages from a single Iron Age site in Britain. Both currency bars and pieces of bulk iron, in the form of billets, were imported to the site. Fragments of cut currency bars show that they were being worked at Danebury. The possible sources of the different types of iron, and the objects made from them, are discussed in detail.

Seymen, N., & Aydın Türk, Y. (2018). City and Craft: Trabzon. In H. Arapgirlioğlu, A. Atik, S. Hızıroğlu, R. L.Elliot, & D. Atik (Eds.), The Most Recent Studies in Science and Art (Vol. 2, pp. 1994-2008). Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS: Parallel to the globalizing world, due to the acceleration of capital, commerce, population, consumption and increasing product diversity, identity changes and cultural losses are taking place in the cities. Such changes in the texture of the cities are mostly seen in the old city centers where craft spaces are concentrated. Therefore, the crafts and craft spaces, which have an important place in the identity and culture of the city, are gradually decreasing and disappearing. This is an important problem for sustainability of crafts in the future. For this reason, planning approaches should be adopted in order to protect and maintain the craft spaces, which are distinguishable identities and cultural elements of the city. The historical city center of Trabzon, which was selected as the study area, has important traces in the identity and culture of the city. The historical city center and its surrounding urban areas are known for their craft types. For example, Pazarkapı for carpentry, chest-making, ironworking; Kemeraltı for jewellery, copperworking, silversmithing, broommaking; Tabakhane for shoemaking and leatherworking. Today, these craft spaces have either changed places or have gone to a change of function or are completely lost. It is important to be able to maintain these characteristics of the historical city center of Trabzon and traces it has today. Therefore, it is necessary to protect the craft spaces and bring them back to the city. In the planning and conservation works in the city, crafts and craft spaces should be supported by special projects. Cultural spaces where research projects, exhibitions and activities for the crafts can be made should be created and they must be brought together with the city and urbanites. With public, private and NGO cooperation craft-oriented urban policies should be developed. Sectoral models for different craft types in the city should be produced and cooperation should be provided.

- by nurçin seymen
- •
- Urban Planning, Urban Studies, Traditional Crafts, Urban And Regional Planning

The article presents the collection of 19th-century hand
forged nails from the Department of History and Applied
Arts at the National Museum of Slovenia. The collection
consists of 669 individual objects, classified into 102
typological sets. In addition to nails, the department also has
38 semi-products, which were probably made from drawn
wire. The main body of the article presents the purposes of
the sets of nails, and it further looks into the research about
the acquisition of the core collection.

- by János Gömöri
- •
- Archaeology, Ethnography, Early Medieval Archaeology, Medieval Archaeology

Järnet har varit viktigt som råmaterial
under medeltiden och studier av järnproduktion, tekniker och omfattning av
råjärn från sjöar, mossar och berg har ägnats stor uppmärksamhet i forskningen i Skandinavien.
Ändå är det förvånande, att järnbearbetning och järnanvändning i städerna
inte har diskuterats särskilt mycket. I denna studie vill vi aktualisera grundläggande frågor
kring bruket av järn och bearbetning av järn i medeltidsstäderna i Skandinavien.
Vi kommer att ta upp frågan hur mycket järn en medeltida stad konsumerade. Vilka
typer av föremål av järn finner vi i det arkeologiska materialet i den medeltida staden? Vi
vill också ge några synpunkter på frågan om artefakterna kom från stadens egna smedjor
eller om de importerades till staden. Utgångspunkten är arkeologiskt material från två
skandinaviska medeltidsstäder, Lödöse i Sverige och Bergen i Norge. Vi behandlar frågorna
mot bakgrund av redan existerande klassifikationer och dateringar av arkeologiskt
material. Studien är således att betrakta som ett första test inom problemfältet...

- by Gitte Hansen and +2
- •
- Historical Archaeology, Medieval Studies, Medieval Archaeology, Medieval Towns

Archaeological excavations undertaken between 2004 and 2008 at Wednesbury Forge, Wednesbury, West Midlands encountered extensive remains of timber and masonry structures and other features. Historical and archaeological evidence revealed a sophisticated ironworking complex in existence by c. 1600, which was subsequently continually adapted and redeveloped until the site closed in 2005. Processes included finery and chafery forges, nail-making,
saw-making, gun-making and edge-tool manufacture. Later developments included a wind-powered grinding mill, internal railway networks, water turbines, rolling mills, housing and workers’ recreational facilities. Archaeological investigations comprised documentary research, excavation, building recording, oral history and process recording.

Accounts survive for bloomery that operated in Clun Park, near Llantrisant, Glamorgan in the 1530s. At the end of the century, a blast furnace was built nearby. The article considers both ironworks and 19th century and later mentions of... more

- by Peter King
- •
- Industrial History, Post-Medieval Archaeology, Blast Furnace, Ironworking

History of forges and ironworks at the Basque Country

- by Lydia Zapata
- •
- Medieval Archaeology, Archaeology of the Basque Country, Ironworking, Forges

This paper re-assesses the conventional understanding of nineteenth century iron production. The pocket book of a worker at Noah Hingley and Sons’ ironworks at Netherton (near Dudley) records the ingredients for the different types of puddled iron produced by the firm The notebook makes it
clear that differentiation between ‘best’, ‘best best’ and other grades took place at the puddling stage rather than during subsequent forging; many of the mixtures described can be associated with different grades advertised by Hingleys at the time.

- by Paul Belford
- •
- Industrial History, Industrial Archaeology, Metallurgy, Iron and Steel (History)

Seymen, N., & Aydın Türk, Y. (2018). “Bir Kültür Bileşeni Olarak Zanaat ve Mekan”, CRAFTARCH’18 International Art Craft Space Congress – Revitalizing Art Craft Space Relations, Konya, Türkiye, 5-7 Aralık 2018 (pp.283-295), Eğitim... more

- by nurçin seymen and +1
- •
- Urban Planning, Urban Studies, Traditional Crafts, Urban And Regional Planning

RESUMEN Los hallazgos de numerosas ferrerías de monte o haizeolak en el País Vasco y los resultados de las excavaciones de algunos de estos yacimientos arqueometalúrgicos constatan la existencia de una intensiva producción manual de hierro en la Antigüedad y Edad Media basada en los ricos depósitos de mineral de nuestro territorio. Los objetivos de este artículo son, por un lado, presentar por primera vez el resultado del mapa de conjunto de la actividad productiva del hierro prehidráulico en el País Vasco tras 10 años de prospección. Por otro, avanzar en la comprensión de las características de la tecnología empleada en esas ferrerías. Y por último, reflexionar sobre la manera de aproximarnos a la antigua metalurgia del hierro a través de una metodología integral de estudio y del análisis de los resultados obtenidos en las últimas intervenciones arqueológicas.
ABSTRACT
The findings of a large quantity of mountainside ironworks (called haizeolak in basque) in the Basque Country and the results of the
excavations of some of these archaeometallurgical sites stand as the evidence of an intensive manual production of iron in the Antiquity and
the Middle Ages. The objectives of this article are, on the one hand, to present the overall map of the non-hydraulic iron production in the
Basque Country for the first time, as a result of 10 years of archaeological surveys. Thus, it is clearly noticeable that the development of this
industry was based on the rich ore deposits our mining territory. On the other hand, the goal of this paper is to advance in the understanding
of the technological features used in those ironworks. And finally, we reflect on how to approach the old iron metallurgy through an integral
methodology of study and . As examples, we reveal the latest findings (two more ironworks discovered in 2015 and 2016), which provide
new data on the operational chain of this type of workshopsand consolidate the features of the mentioned model.

Current research on a wide range of ironworking topics was summarised in 47 papers from 13 European countries, with other papers on Africa, India, Israel and Jordan. Topics include excavations, experiments, archeometallurgy, palaeoenvironmental studies, history and ethnography, with a date range from the early Iron Age through to the 18th century.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Archaeology, Experimental Archaeology, Palaeoenvironment, Early Medieval Archaeology

Current research on a wide range of ironworking topics were presented in 51 papers from 15 European countries, with other papers from Estonia and Africa. Topics include excavations, surveys, experiments and archaeometallurgy, with a date... more

After a brief survey of the medieval bloomeries in Snowdonia, the late 16th century blast furnace, at Dol y Clochydd, is described in some detail, with the historical evidence, a site description and details of the 1984 season of excavation.
A note is appended to the paper, with more recent references to both the bloomeries and Dol y Clochydd.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Historical Archaeology, Industrial Archaeology, Medieval Archaeology, Medieval Wales

A description and a critical appraisal of twenty-five years of ironworking experiments are presented. Initially the experiments were designed to answer specific questions raised by excavations at prehistoric sites in Snowdonia, where bog-ores with both high and low phosphorus were smelted in small diameter furnaces. Later excavations at a medieval site, where Mn-rich bog-ores were smelted on a large scale, raised new questions which were also examined. Other experiments used sideritic ironstones and hard-rock ores, from the east Midlands, Cumbria and Dean. A project at a reconstructed 18th century water powered bloomery in the Basque country is also described. Particular topics examined include the nature of the furnaces, the bellows and blowing rates; the ore, charcoal and clay types, quality and treatment; and the operating conditions, the products and the losses of material through the refining process. Models deriving from the experimental data and their application to the archaeological sites are presented. A number of general questions are highlighted and suggestions made for further work in experimental ironworking.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Archaeology, Experimental Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Industrial Archaeology
- by Simon Stevens
- •
- Rescue Archaeology, Iron Age, Post-Medieval Archaeology, Sussex History

This thesis investigates the technology of iron production in Iron Age and early medieval Ireland and, through two case studies, situates iron production in its social context. Archaeological evidence from 202 sites, many recently excavated and unpublished is analysed, allowing the characterisation of the archaeology of Irish smelting and smithing sites, including features such as furnaces and smithing hearths as well as associated finds and structures. An Iron Age case study focuses on an iron producing region in the Irish midlands. This area has produced a significant number of dispersed, isolated and small-scale smelting sites from the period, as well as a very small number of smithing sites associated with ritually significant hilltop sites. It is argued that smith/smelters in the Iron Age of the region played a significant role in what was probably a mobile, pastoral society. They had a dual role as both craft-workers and ritual specialists, smelting iron in isolation before creating desirable objects at places of communal ritual and ceremony. A second case study focuses on the idea of the ironworker as a specialist in early medieval society. It is argued that the role of ironworkers changed significantly at the beginning of the period with the arrival of Christianity and the appropriation of iron technology by the Church, which organised the first large-scale specialist smithing in the country. As the period progressed smithing became a more common activity, carried out by a spectrum of workers including high-status secular smiths working on a very large-scale.

This paper describes the scientific investigation of the raw materials, iron products, slags and slag inclusions from a bloomery smelting and bloom forging experiment. The smelt used a high alumina sideritic ore, a clay-built shaft furnace and a blowing rate of around 200 litres per minute. The smelting slag produced was viscous and frothy, most similar in composition, microstructure and morphology to slag from medieval bloomeries smelting similar ores. Unusually, the slag contained magnetite rather than the typical wüstite, in the form of dendrites which were often nucleated on euhedral spinel crystals. The distinctive microstructure and composition of the smelting slag allowed inclusions of this slag to be differentiated from others which were formed and modified during smithing from bloom to bar. The silica to alumina and the silica to lime ratios in the bloom and bar slag inclusions were lower than in the smelting slag. A series of materials balance calculations indicates the influence of different proportions of furnace lining, fuel ash and ore on the smelting slags and the inclusions.

- by Peter Crew and +1
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Archaeometry, Archaeometallurgy, Ancient Technology (Archaeology)
- by Peuce Journal
- •
- Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Anthropology, Library Science

Building on insights from previous Darwinian studies of technology, this paper explores the potential of evolutionary models to explain diversity and change in bloomery ironmaking recipes. Bloomery, or direct process ironmaking, involves the solid state reduction of iron oxide to metal and was the predominant means of producing iron in the pre-industrial world. The most archaeologically accessible record of bloomery practice is slag, an essential by-product of the smelting process. Ironmaking recipes can be characterized by their slag chemistry using a combination of multivariate statistics, ternary phase diagrams, and oxide ratios. Models derived from evolutionary theory are used to explain the shape, structure, and trajectories of ironmaking lineages identified from patterns of slag chemistry in terms of invention, selection, and socially mediated constraint processes. The utility of this approach is demonstrated by its application to slag excavated at Llwyn Du, a late medieval bloomery in northwest Wales.

- by Michael Charlton and +3
- •
- Evolutionary Archaeology, Archaeological Method & Theory, Medieval Wales, Archaeometallurgy
- by Simon Stevens
- •
- Archaeology, Iron Age, Ancient Metallurgy, Ironworking

Two large Roman iron bars, found in a 1920's excavation of a rectilinear smithing site, are described in detail for the first time. The bars are similar is size and weight to some of those in the St-Maries-de-la-Mer wrecks, found in the Rhone delta, and are argued to be one of the standardised forms of Roman trade iron, possibly imported from the Forest of Dean or South Wales. The European, British and Welsh archaeological and epigraphic evidence for Roman iron production and trade is discussed and illustrated.
This revised version has additional references with hyperlinks and new colour illustrations of the Sousse mosaic and the Augusta Raurica tombstone.

- by Simon Stevens
- •
- Rescue Archaeology, Iron Age (Archaeology), Ironworking, Kent Archaeology

Between 1969 and 1973, excavations were undertaken at Hijken, the Netherlands. An area of 3 hectares within a cultural landscape replete with barrows and Celtic field banks was opened-up and yielded Late Neolithic graves, a Bronze Age palisade and several Middle Bronze Age houses. During the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, the site was still occupied and pits filled with fragmented pots may testify to abandonment rituals. Our analysis allows to diachronically trace changes and continuity in the use-phases of the site – suggesting that the site may have been inhabited from the Middle Bronze Age-B to the Late Iron Age. Remarkably, the eponymous house type (type Hijken) proved to be rather uncommon at Hijken and moreover appears to span the Early to Late Iron Age. Careful study of the interrelations of fence-lines, Celtic field banks and house plans suggests that bank development may have started in the Early Iron Age, but is it plausible that aspects such as Celtic field orientation may have been derived from older (Bronze Age) cultural landscape elements and preceding fence-systems.

- by stijn arnoldussen and +1
- •
- Prehistoric Archaeology, Settlement Patterns, Bronze Age Europe (Archaeology), Ceramic Analysis (Archaeology)

This bibliography has been organised on a broadly thematic basis, by topic or by site, though there is inevitably a degree of overlap. It includes a number of conference presentations, in PPT format, which give additional illustrations to support the published versions. It also includes papers by other authors, which relate to our sites and projects, especially environmental studies, by Tim Mighall and his colleagues, and studies of the experimental and archaeological slags, by Mike Charlton.
Where possible links are given which lead directly to the relevant pages on the academia.edu site. Copies of papers which do not have links can be supplied on request (crew.peter.susan@gmail.com). This bibliography will be updated periodically.

XRF analyses of a sequence of slags from smelting, bloom refining and smithing show the systematic changes in major and trace elements. A materials balance for XP27 is presented, showing the influence of the clay on the slags. A... more

- by Peter Crew and +1
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Archaeometallurgy, Paleometallurgy, Ironworking

An index to a selection of papers by Radomir Pleiner now available on Academia.edu, with hyperlinks.

- by Digital library Bohemia and +1
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Metallurgy, Metalwork (Archaeology), Archaeometry

Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, in Washington, DC, is an institute of Harvard University dedicated to supporting scholarship internationally in Byzantine, Pre-Columbian, and Garden and Landscape Studies through fellowships, meetings, exhibitions, and publications. Located in Georgetown and bequeathed by Robert Woods Bliss and Mildred Barnes Bliss, Dumbarton Oaks welcomes scholars to consult its books, images, and objects, and the public to visit its garden, museum, and historic house for lectures and concerts.

- by Jan Ziolkowski
- •
- Music, Archival Studies, Humanities, Late Antique and Byzantine History

Osmund was exported from Sweden in large quantities from the 13th to the early 17th century. There has been a great deal of debate about how osmunds were made, what was their weight and form and the sizes of the barrels in which they were traded. This paper focusses on the evidence from the English historical sources, which have extensive evidence for the imports of osmund and for its sale on the English market. There are also a number of sources which give insight into the nature and form of osmund and, finally, the important evidence from the Gdansk W5 Copper Ship and the Egelskar wrecks is discussed.
A detailed analysis of the prices of osmund, steel and iron sold on the English market makes it clear that the osmunds were small refined bars of steel and hypotheses are presented for their weight and the sizes of the barrels in which they were imported. It is argued that the Swedish osmunds were exported to the Baltic ports of Danzig and Lubeck, where they were further refined into small steel bars for re-export mainly by Hanseatic merchants to the European market.

Large samples of the bloom, billet and bars from XP41 were examined by metallography and microprobe analysis. The steely bloom, with high phosphorus, gradually became decarburised, with increasing segregation of the P, ending with a highly heterogeneous metal. The final bar had a well defined zone of arsenic, nickel, cobalt enrichment on the weld line. Examination of only small samples could give misleading results.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Experimental Archaeology, Archaeometallurgy, Paleometallurgy, Ironworking

Dialogues d’histoire ancienne 8, 1962, 167-192

- by CPSA Comité Pour la Sidérurgie Ancienne and +1
- •
- Archaeometry, Archaeometallurgy, Ancient Technology (Archaeology), Paleometallurgy

This essay intends to reconstruct the historical-artistic events that led to the creation of the current wrought iron and bronze gates existing at the closing of the radial chapels of the church, works by the artist Alberto Calligaris from Udine (1924-1925). These works, commissioned in 1921 by the Presidency of the Veneranda Arca, replaced the previous gates made only twenty years earlier by Alessandro Mazzucotelli, one of the most famous artists of the Art Nouveau, and by Joseph Frohnsbeck of Munich, both called to work in the building site of Camillo Boito started in 1895. What caused their rapid replacement? What is their fate?
To try to give an answer to these questions, defining the precise context in which Calligaris found itself operating, the research examines Boito’s interventions planned for the wrought iron works of the national chapels (for which he designed the gates of San Giuseppe, Santo Stanislao and Santa Chiara, than executed by Mazzucotelli).
The many documents kept in the Archive of the Veneranda Arca del Santo, together with the analysis of the drawings of the artists deposited in various Italian institutions, have allowed to deepen the relationships between blacksmiths and customers defining stylistic choices, iconographic and iconological references.

- by Sofia Stefani
- •
- Decorative Arts, Liberty, Ironworking, Decorative ironwork

A report on the first four seasons of excavation at the prehistoric settlement at Crawcwellt. A succession of stake-wall roundhouses contained evidence for intensive ironworking, with a sequence of well-preserved furnaces and an external dump of some 1400kg of slag. Finds include burnt stone, spindlewhorls, glass beads and a fragment of a decorated blue glass bangle.
A detailed quantification of the ironworking debris suggests that some 300 smelts were carried out, producing blooms of 2kg each, which were refined to a total of some 300kg of artefacts.

Few critical evaluations of fieldwork methods applied to iron production and ironworking remains exist. This paper demonstrates how an experimental smelt can be a proxy for testing and evaluating methods used to detect, record and excavate a bloomery furnace and smithing hearth. In this investigation, a series of smelting and smithing experiments were recorded and compared to the results obtained from an archaeological analysis into their heavily disturbed remains (topographical survey, geophysical prospection, magnetic survey collection and excavation). Non-invasive techniques confirmed the presence of pyrotechnology. Invasive methods, however, highlighted the importance of examining micro-residues in providing a greater insight into the metallurgical activities that had taken place. The methods used and the results of the experiment are assessed in comparison to known archaeological examples from a Roman iron smelting complex in Hüttenberg (Austria) to demonstrate how a proxy can be effective in better understanding archaeological remains. Some of the broader issues relating to fieldwork methods and guidelines are also discussed.

- by Frank Stremke and +1
- •
- Archaeology, Experimental Archaeology, Archaeological Method & Theory, Geomagnetism
- by Peter Henrich
- •
- Roman Villa, Ironworking, Villa gallo-romaine

After the roughly outlined survey of the legends about the celestial smiths (or cultureheroes of the earliest craftsmanship,) we presume that the story of the Hungarian „Celestial smith”,(world’s smith or country’s smith) of the tale-type ’Égitestszabadító = Solar-liberator, (BN, MNK 319* Hungarian Ethnographical Encyclopaedia = Magyar Nérajzi Lexikon) connected to some Indo-
European myths. After the dragon robbed the sun, the moon and the stars, the celestial smith helps the hero (Szépmezőszánya) in the struggle against the dragon, to win back the Sun and the Moon: the smith pours some burning hot metal (lead, iron, or gold) onto the head of the dragon. The main elements (sun, fire, dragon) of this popular Hungarian tale with eastern origin can be found in some of the Indo-European myths, established by ethnographers. The author looks over the results of excavations of smithies in Hungary. The known types of smithies from the Avar (7th-9th c. AD) and Arpadian area (10th-12th c.A.D.): I. Irregular shaped pit workshops from Zala County (9th-12th c. A.D.). II: Surface pile-work, Sopron and Somogy Counties (mainly from the Avar period and 9th century). III: Pit workshop in form of a dwelling house, but smaller hearths as the commonly used ovens. This type is known in the whole country (Avar, and Arpadian area, 7th-13th c.). Moreover the social status of the smiths in the Early Medieval period was examined in relation to the legends about the smith-heroes.

- by Gömöri János
- •
- Mithology, Ironworking, Handicrafts

This PPT was presented at the 2008 Huttenberg conference, giving a detailed re-examination and re-interpretation of the evidence from Laxton for large scale smelting in large diameter furnaces of Roman date. The complex furnace structure had a highly refractory lining, allowing it to be used for many smelts with minimal repairs. A re-assessment of the technology, based on fast smelting and three blowing holes, suggests that up to 40,000 smelts were carried out over an 80 year period, between the mid-first and mid-second centuries AD. A military involvement is proposed.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Roman Britain, Archaeometallurgy, Ancient Technology (Archaeology), Paleometallurgy

This is the PPT from the 2010 HMS conference giving a summary of 25 years of ironworking experiments, linked to the excavations at Bryn y Castell, Crawcwellt and Llwyn Du, where bog-iron ores of different types were smelted. Other experiments with sideritic ironstones and hard rock ores are described and a project at an 18th century water-powered bloomery in the Basque Country. The PPT has a much wider range of illustrations than the paper published in 2013, along with a descriptive text.

- by Peter Crew
- •
- Archaeology, Experimental Archaeology, Historical Archaeology, Medieval Archaeology