Marine Reserve Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

The application of agent methodologies in process monitoring and control is a relatively novel approach, particularly suitable for distributed and dislocated systems. As for marine reservers, access monitoring is aimed at avoiding intrusions of unauthorized boats–also considering that, typically, marine reserves are located in areas not easily accessible. Typical solutions consist of using radar systems or suitable cameras activated by movement sensors. In this paper, we present a multiagent system aimed at monitoring boats in ...

- by and +2
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- Marine Reserve

Increases in the density of exploited species on unfished reefs logically implies that some individuals are at least temporarily resident, or show fidelity to a particular area. We tagged snapper (Pagrus auratus (Bloch & Schneider 1801)) in the Leigh Marine Reserve, New Zealand using visible implant fluorescent elastomer tags, recoverable by diver visual sightings without the need to recapture the fish. Batch tagging of snapper (n = 907) was done during an angling survey in June and December 1996, and individually coded tags were implanted by divers in = 117) in January 1999. Snapper tagged during both programmes were recovered on irregular intervals from 1997 to 2000. There were 71 recoveries of batch tags within 500 m of their tagging sites, and these recoveries were still being made >3 years after tagging: Of individually coded fish, 49 (42%) were seen, sometimes repeatedly over several months, close to their respective tagging sites. These observations included snapper as small as 23 cm fork length, contradicting the commonly held impression that only large snapper take up long-term residency on reefs. This preliminary evidence suggests that some snapper exhibit site fidelity to areas only a few hundred metres wide, and in the absence of fishing may occupy the same area for years.

- by Russell Babcock
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- Earth Sciences, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences, New Zealand

The relationship between species and functional diversity remains poorly understood for nearly all ecosystem types, yet determining this relationship is critically important for developing both a mechanistic understanding of community assembly and appropriate expectations and approaches to protecting and restoring biological communities. Here we use two distinct data sets, one from kelp forests in the Channel Islands, California, and one from a global synthesis of marine reserves, to directly test how ...

- by Benjamin S. Halpern
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- Resilience, Marine Protected Areas, Ecology, Marine Reserves

We contribute to the understanding of marine reserves and the management of renewable resources with uncertainty. We show that the key benefit of reserves is that they increase resilience, or the speed it takes a population to return to a former state following a negative shock. Resilience can also increase resource rents even with optimal harvesting. We contradict the accepted wisdom that reserves have no value if harvesting is optimal, reserves and optimal output controls are equivalent, reserves have value only with overexploited populations and that reserves must be large to offer benefits to fishers. JEL CODES: Q20, D81, C61

- by Pham Ha and +1
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- Renewable Resources, Marine Reserve, Economics Environment

We investigate the effects of the Columbretes Islands Marine Reserve (CIMR, Western Mediterranean) on the adjacent Palinurus elephas (Fabricius, 1787) fishery. After 9 to 12 yr of no-take protection there was a gradient of lobster density from the interior of the reserve up to a distance of about 4 km from its boundary. Catch and effort data were collected onboard commercial fishing boats in the fishery adjacent to the CIMR, and combined with catch per unit effort (CPUE) data from monitoring surveys conducted annually inside the reserve. Generalized additive (GAM) and linear (GLM) models were employed to examine the relationships of CPUE and catch per unit area (CPUA) as a function of distance to the reserve boundary. CPUE showed a significant non-linear decline with distance from the centre of the reserve, with a depression at the boundary followed by a plateau. This depression was caused by local depletion associated with concentration of fishing effort at the reserve boundary, while the plateau suggests that lobster export from the reserve is sufficient to maintain stable catch rates up to 1500 m from the boundary. Commercial catch and effort data were combined to estimate CPUA, which declined linearly with distance from the reserve. Analysis of recaptures of lobsters tagged and released inside the reserve indicates that the density gradient is caused by lobsters emigrating from the reserve.

- by Antoni Quetglas
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- Zoology, Crustacea, Ecology, Spillover

Marine reserves are promoted as an effective supplement to traditional fishery management techniques of harvest quotas and effort limitation. However, quantitative fishery models have ignored the impact of noncompliance (poaching). Here we link a model of a harvested fish population to a game-theoretic representation of fisherman behavior to quantify the effect of poaching on fishery yield and the enforcement effort required to maintain any desired level of reserve effectiveness. Although higher fish densities inside reserves will typically entice fishermen to poach, we show that the initial investment in enforcement efforts provides the greatest return on maintaining the benefits of the reserve to the fishery. Furthermore, we find that poaching eliminates the positive effect of fish dispersal on yield that is predicted by traditional models that ignore fisherman behavior. Our results broaden a fundamental insight from previous models of marine reserves, the effective equivalence of the harvest quota and reserve fraction, to the more realistic scenario in which fishermen attempt to maximize their economic payoffs.

- by James Jeb Byers
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- Game Theory, Behavior, Fisheries, Population Dynamics

Reproductive biology and social behaviour of the parrotfish Sparisoma cretense was studied in the Azores Islands, northeast Atlantic, to characterize its spawning season and general reproductive biology in the region, to clarify the species mating system and associated spawning behaviours, and to evaluate the relationship between its reproductive traits and habitat features. S. cretense exhibits a dual mating system where males hold female harems within year-round territories or live in multi-male groups. Group behaviour predominates in smaller size classes, and territoriality in larger size classes. Males mature and become territorial earlier in life than females, and the best territories are held by larger males. The two behavioural modes are usually spatially segregated, with larger territorial fish preferring exposed and deeper reef ledges, and group fish occupying shallower, protected habitats. However, they frequently interact and overlap in space, especially during reproduction in the summer. Our findings indicate a highly competitive system and suggest that high quality spawning sites are important for the reproductive success of both types of fish. Patchiness of habitat along shorelines determines the relative distribution and equilibrium of territorial versus group fish. The complexity of this relationship between social structure and habitat might impact the populations' productivity, and could influence the success of marine protected areas for this species.

- by Ricardo Santos
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- Reproduction, Fisheries, Biology, Ecology

Fishery resources have declined and reef fish assemblages have changed over the last 30-40 years in the US Virgin Islands (USVI), even within a Marine Protected Area, Virgin Islands National Park (VINP). Groupers and snappers are now far less abundant, the proportion of herbivorous fishes has increased, individuals of many fish species are smaller, and spawning aggregations have been decimated. The national park is not a refuge for reef fishes. Relative abundance, species richness, and biomass of fishes in visual samples, and the species composition and number of fishes in traps are similar inside and outside VINP. Lobsters and conchs have decreased in abundance and/or size, and conch density is no greater within VINP than outside. Although habitat degradation has undoubtedly played a role, heavy fishing pressure has greatly contributed to the observed changes. No-take marine reserves, such as the recently established national monuments in the USVI, offer hope for recovery of fish assemblages and associated habitats.

- by Caroline Rogers
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- Coral Reef, Species Composition, Species Richness, National Park

Abstract. The fish assemblages of a strictly protected area and of a neighbouring fished area, located off a Mediterranean urbanized coast (Carry-le-Rouet, France), were compared in order to select the most evident, constant, and easily recorded indices of the ‘reserve effect’. Visual censusing was repeated simultaneously at both sites eight time a year during 3 years along four permanent transects layed on shallow rocky bottoms (9–14 m). Overall species richness was 16% higher in the reserve, but differences in average instantaneous richness were only marginally significant. The most contrasting results were shown by the occurrence frequency, abundance, and demographic structure of two types of target species. The type A target species group comprises 16 large meso- and macrocarnivores particularly threatened by spearfishing, including the common nectobenthic sparids Diplodus spp. Type B target species are represented by two small territorial fishes particularly impacted by angling: the serranid Serranus cabrilla and the terminal phase males of the labrid Coris julis. The size structure of Diplodus spp., S. cabrilla, and C.julis subpopulations strongly argues for the role of protected areas as a reservoir of large spawners. Fishing pressure is assumed to modify the social conditions of the C. julis local populations and to induce earlier sex change.

- by Francisco López
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- Zoology, Oceanography, Marine Ecology, Ecology

To restore the diminishing population of the giant clam Tridacna gigas in Sagay Marine Reserve (SMR), Negros Occidental, central Philippines, two size classes [8-and 10-cm shell length (SL)] of hatchery-bred T. gigas were reared in an adjacent ocean nursery for restocking to Carbin Reef later upon reaching grow-out size of C20 cm SL. Growth rates did not significantly differ for both sizes and were on average 0.67 cm month-1. However, survival after 382 days of rearing T. gigas was significantly higher in the 10-cm SL clams than the 8-cm SL clams (96 and 83%, respectively). For future restocking projects, the use of 8-cm SL clams is recommended because the lower survival of this size class is compensated by its cheaper price. While rearing the clams to attain grow-out size, the population of wild clams (Family Tridacnidae) in Carbin Reef was assessed using ten 50 9 2-m belt transects. Four species of tridacnid clams have been recorded: Hippopus hippopus, Tridacna crocea, T. maxima, and T. squamosa. T. crocea comprised 12.5-93.9% of all the clams observed in all ten transects. There was a significant difference in clam density between species (ANOVA, F = 6.94, P \ 0.001), with T. crocea having the highest density. Living T. gigas were absent, but presence of dead shells was indicative of its presence in the reef in the past. It can be expected that the release of hatchery-bred T. gigas juveniles in Carbin Reef could provide future breeders that will repopulate this reef and the adjacent reef communities.

- by Terence Dacles
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- Assessment, Aquaculture, Growth, Fisheries Sciences

As the process of marine-protected-area design and implementation evolves, the incorporation of new tools will advance our ability to create and maintain effective protected areas. We reviewed characteristics and approaches that contribute to successful global marine conservation efforts. One successful characteristic emphasized in most case studies is the importance of incorporating stakeholders at all phases of the process. Clearly defined goals and objectives at all stages of the design process are important for improved communication and standardized expectations of stakeholder groups. The inclusion of available science to guide the size and design of marine protected areas and to guide clear monitoring strategies that assess success at scientific, social, and economic levels is also an important tool in the process. Common shortcomings in marine conservation planning strategies include government instability and resultant limitations to monitoring and enforcement, particularly in developing nations. Transferring knowledge to local community members has also presented challenges in areas where in situ training, local capacity, and existing infrastructure are sparse. Inaccessible, unavailable, or outdated science is often a limitation to conservation projects in developed and developing nations. To develop and maintain successful marine protected areas, it is necessary to acknowledge that each case is unique, to apply tools and lessons learned from other marine protected areas, and to maintain flexibility to adjust to the individual circumstances of the case at hand.

No-take marine protected areas (MPAs), where all fishing is prohibited, have been shown to provide benefits that include greater productivity of fish stocks due to increased densities, average sizes, and reproductive output. A critical component of this success is the effective management of MPAs to ensure that only those activities deemed permissible, are allowed to occur. As of 2008, 161 MPAs had been designated on the Pacific coast of Canada by federal, provincial or municipal authorities. The objective of this study was to discover how many of these MPAs are intended to provide full protection to habitats and species from commercial fishing and whether management measures were put in place to actualize this conservation intent. The comprehensive spatial dataset was built illustrating commercial fisheries closures and this was overlaid with MPA locations in a GIS. The majority of MPAs were designated as IUCN Strict Nature Reserve (Type Ia), Wilderness Area (Type Ib), and National Park (Type II) marine reserves, which are intended to be free from exploitation. It was found that 160 of the 161 MPAs are open to some commercial harvesting within their bounds. One small municipal MPA and portions of three other MPAs are not open to commercial harvesting. The incongruence between management intent and fisheries permitted suggests a management failure between designation of MPAs and implementation of fisheries management regulations.

- by Kim Wright
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- Law, Spatial Analysis, Political Science, Fishery Management

Anchovy and round sardinella are two important small pelagic species in the Mediterranean that spawn during the summer period. This is a first attempt to model and predict the two species' potential spawning habitats in this area. Generalized additive models (GAMs) were constructed based on satellite environmental variables and presence/absence egg data, available from ichthyoplankton surveys conducted in the North Aegean Sea during early summer . These models were subsequently used to predict the probability of anchovy and round sardinella spawning in the Greek Seas as well as the entire Mediterranean and Black Sea during the same month of the year. The interaction of bottom depth and chlorophyll explained most of the deviance in the presence/absence GAMs of both species, indicating spawning over continental shelf areas with increased surface chlorophyll values. Round sardinella spawned closer to coast than anchovy. Predicted potential spawning areas for anchovy and round sardinella in unsampled areas of the Greek Seas and the entire Mediterranean and Black Sea were in good agreement with existing information on the distribution and extent of the spawning grounds, especially for anchovy. Modeling the species' reproductive activity in relation to easily accessible environmental information and applying the models in a predictive way could be an initial, low-cost step to designate potential spawning fish habitats.

- by Anatoly Saveliev
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- Earth Sciences, Remote Sensing, Spatial Analysis, Statistical Modelling

Marine reserves are widely used throughout the world to prevent overfishing and conserve biodiversity, but uncertainties remain about their optimal design. The effects of marine reserves are heterogeneous. Despite theoretical findings, empirical studies have previously found no effect of size on the effectiveness of marine reserves in protecting commercial fish stocks. Using 58 datasets from 19 European marine reserves, we show that reserve size and age do matter: Increasing the size of the no-take zone increases the density of commercial fishes within the reserve compared with outside; whereas the size of the buffer zone has the opposite effect. Moreover, positive effects of marine reserve on commercial fish species and species richness are linked to the time elapsed since the establishment of the protection scheme. The reserve size-dependency of the response to protection has strong implications for the spatial management of coastal areas because marine reserves are used for spatial zoning. Keywords Asymmetrical analysis of variance, coastal marine ecosystems, commercial species, fish assemblages, heterogeneity, marine protected area, marine reserve age, marine reserve design, marine reserve network, marine reserve size, weighted meta-analysis.

- by carlos hernan cortes valle
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- Fisheries, Ecology, Biodiversity, Heterogeneity

Lough Hynemarine reserve is a sea inlet, ofarea c. 60 ha, on the south-west Irish coast. Conditions vary from the exposed outer harbour of Barloge Creek to a sheltered marine basin, with depths to 47 m. A shallow, narrow connection, the Rapids, between the two parts causes a reduced tidal range within the marine basin. The status of 72 fish species is given, 38 of them being recorded for the first time from this locality. Eleven goby species are present, including well established but isolated populations of Gohius cruenfulus and G. couch;. The listing comprises museum material, previous records and direct observations from 1976 to 1985 inclusive. This reserve is recognized by the Council of Europe as part of an international biogenetic network of reserves.

- by Dan Minchin
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- Zoology, Ecology, Fish Biology, Fisheries Sciences

The protection of exploited species offered by marine reserves is maximised if individual fish live within the boundaries of the reserve for most of their lives. The direct benefit of this protection, the so called ‘reserve effect’, is the build-up of biomass through an increase in individual numbers and size. This effect can take several years depending on the life history traits of the target species. However, empirical studies on individual fish spatial behaviour at temporal scales long enough to be compatible with that of invoking the reserve effect are still virtually lacking. We studied the inter-annual patterns of habitat use of the dusky grouper (Epinephelusmarginatus), an endangered reef fish predator, using passive acoustic telemetry inside and around a small marine reserve in the Azores, mid-north Atlantic. All 11 individuals resided in the reserve year-round for up to 5 years. During these periods, fish were detected nearly every day and utilised stable core activity areas. Two smaller fish apparently abandoned the area after some time, probably relocating outside the reserve. Our results indicate that even small marine reserves can promote the long-term recovery of some endangered species if the long-term behaviour (i.e. site fidelity) of individuals is appropriate. This result bears direct implications for most existing coastal marine reserves, given that they fall into the small size range and many overexploited reef fish species may be highly site attached.► All dusky groupers resided in the reserve year-round for up to 5 years. ► Groupers utilised stable core activity areas. ► Small reserves can promote the recovery of local populations of dusky groupers. ► This has direct implications for most existing (small) coastal marine reserves.

- by Toni So
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- Pharmacology, Biochemistry, Bioinformatics, Evolutionary Biology

Coral reefs are iconic, threatened ecosystems that have been in existence for ∼500 million years, yet their continued ecological persistence seems doubtful at present. Anthropogenic modification of chemical and physical atmospheric dynamics that cause coral death by bleaching and newly emergent diseases due to increased heat and irradiation, as well as decline in calcification caused by ocean acidification due to increased CO 2 , are the most important large-scale threats. On more local scales, overfishing and destructive fisheries, coastal construction, nutrient enrichment, increased runoff and sedimentation, and the introduction of nonindigenous invasive species have caused phase shifts away from corals. Already ∼20% of the world's reefs are lost and ∼26% are under imminent threat. Conservation science of coral reefs is well advanced, but its practical application has often been lagging. Societal priorites, economic pressures, and legal/administrative systems of many countries are more prone to destroy rather than conserve coral-reef ecosystems. Nevertheless, many examples of successful conservation exist from the national level to community-enforced local action. When effectively managed, protected areas have contributed to regeneration of coral reefs and stocks of associated marine resources. Local communities often support coral-reef conservation in order to raise income potential associated with tourism and/or improved resource levels. Coral reefs create an annual income in S-Florida alone of over $4 billion. Thus, no conflict between development, societal welfare, and coral-reef conservation needs to exist. Despite growing threats, it is not too late for decisive action to protect and save these economically and ecologically high-value ecosystems. Conservation science plays a critical role in designing effective strategies.

- by Richard Dodge
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- Marine Biology, Conservation, Fisheries, Multidisciplinary

Concepts and theory for the design and application of terrestrial reserves is based on our understanding of environmental, ecological, and evolutionary processes responsible for biological diversity and sustainability of terrestrial ecosystems and how humans have influenced these processes. How well this terrestrial-based theory can be applied toward the design and application of reserves in the coastal marine environment depends, in part, on the degree of similarity between these systems. Several marked differences in ecological and evolutionary processes exist between marine and terrestrial ecosystems as ramifications of fundamental differences in their physical environments (i.e., the relative prevalence of air and water) and contemporary patterns of human impacts. Most notably, the great extent and rate of dispersal of nutrients, materials, holoplanktonic organisms, and reproductive propagules of benthic organisms expand scales of connectivity among nearshore communities and ecosystems. Consequently, the ''openness'' of marine populations, communities, and ecosystems probably has marked influences on their spatial, genetic, and trophic structures and dynamics in ways experienced by only some terrestrial species. Such differences appear to be particularly significant for the kinds of organisms most exploited and targeted for protection in coastal marine ecosystems (fishes and macroinvertebrates). These and other differences imply some unique design criteria and application of reserves in the marine environment. In explaining the implications of these differences for marine reserve design and application, we identify many of the environmental and ecological processes and design criteria necessary for consideration in the development of the analytical approaches developed elsewhere in this Special Issue.

- by Sandy J Andelman and +1
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- Genetics, Marine Conservation, Ecology, Biological Sciences

Ecologists have paid increasing attention to the design of marine protected areas (MPAs), and their design advice consistently recommends representing all habitat types within MPAs or MPA networks as a means to provide protection to all parts of the natural ocean system. Recent developments of new habitatmapping techniques make this advice more achievable, but the success of such an approach depends largely on our ability to define habitat types in a way that is ecologically relevant. We devised and tested the ecological relevance of a set of habitat-type definitions through our participation in a stakeholder-driven process to design a network of MPAs, focusing on no-take marine reserves in the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve, San Andrés Archipelago, Colombia. A priori definitions of habitat types were ecologically relevant, in that our habitat-type definitions corresponded to identifiable and unique characteristics in the ecological communities found there. The identification of ecological pathways and connectivity among habitats also helped in designing ecologically relevant reserve boundaries. Our findings contributed to the overall design process, along with our summary of other general principles of marine reserve design. Extensive stakeholder input provided information concerning the resources and their patterns of use. These inputs also contributed to the reserve design process. We anticipate success for the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve at achieving conservation and social goals because its zoning process includes detailed yet flexible scientific advice and the participation of stakeholders at every step.

- by Alan Friedlander and +2
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- Conservation Biology, Biological Sciences, Habitat Mapping, Environmental Sciences

We synthesize results from existing models of marine reserves to identify key theoretical issues that appear to be well understood, as well as issues in need of further exploration. Models of marine reserves are relatively new in the scientific literature; 32 of the 34 theoretical papers we reviewed were published after 1990. These models have focused primarily on questions concerning fishery management at the expense of other objectives such as conservation, scientific understanding, recreation, education, and tourism. Roughly one-third of the models analyze effects on cohorts while the remaining models have some form of complete population dynamics. Few models explicitly include larval dispersal. In a fisheries context, the primary conclusion drawn by many of the complete population models is that reserves increase yield when populations would otherwise be overfished. A second conclusion, resulting primarily from single-cohort models, is that reserves will provide fewer benefits for species with greater adult rates of movement. Although some models are beginning to yield information on the spatial configurations of reserves required for populations with specific dispersal distances to persist, it remains an aspect of reserve design in need of further analysis. Other outstanding issues include the effects of (1) particular forms of density dependence, (2) multispecies interactions, (3) fisher behavior, and (4) effects of concentrated fishing on habitat. Model results indicate that marine reserves could play a beneficial role in the protection of marine systems against overfishing. Additional modeling and analysis will greatly improve prospects for a better understanding of the potential of marine reserves for conserving biodiversity.

- by Hugh Possingham
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- Management, Conservation, Migration, Ecology

The ability of reserves to replenish fish stocks is relatively well documented, but the evidence of their ability to induce positive effects on benthic communities remains inconclusive. Here, we test whether 10 years of reserve designation have translated into positive effects on coral communities in Glover's Reef, Belize. Surveys of 87 patch reefs inside and outside the reserve revealed no clear indication of reserve implementation benefitting coral cover, coral colony size, or abundance of juvenile corals. Furthermore, massive broadcasting coral species exhibited greater losses over time than their smaller-sized counterparts across all sites, suggesting that local management actions have not alleviated the regional trend of high mortality for these species. We detected no difference in herbivorous fish abundances or macroalgal cover between reserve and fished sites, providing a potential explanation for the lack of cascading positive effects on the coral community. We conclude that patterns of regional coral decline are evident at Glover's Reef, including a shift in dominance from broadcasting species to brooding species and declines in mean colony size. Our findings suggest that regional stressors are overwhelming local management efforts and that additional strategies are required to improve local coral condition.

- by Mandy Karnauskas
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- Earth Sciences, Coral Reefs, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences
- by Laurie Raymundo
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- Marine Reserve

No-take marine reserves are expected to enhance coral reef resilience indirectly through suppression of algal growth and thus maintenance of coral dominance. The mechanism of such enhancement is protection of functionally important herbivorous fishes from harvest. We provide indirect (inferred) evidence of reserves performing this role. We used data on herbivorous fishes, macroalgae and corals collected at one point in time in 15 reserves (range of duration of protection: 0.5 to 11 yr) and at 15 fished sites in the Philippines. Results inferred a 9-and 15-fold increase in density and biomass, respectively, of herbivorous fishes, which coincided with a 13-fold decrease in macroalgal cover inside reserves after 11 yr of protection. The inferred decline in macroalgal cover was more rapid during the first 5 yr of protection. No significant trends in fish abundance or macroalgal cover were detected among fished sites. Biomass of herbivorous fishes was 8 times higher, and cover of macroalgae 25 times lower, on average, inside older (8 to 11 yr) reserves than at fished sites. Parrotfishes (Scaridae) and surgeonfishes (Acanthuridae) had markedly different inferred trajectories of population recovery. Recovery of parrotfish was more rapid than that of surgeonfish in the first 5 yr of protection, suggesting that the functional role of parrotfish was important in reducing macroalgal cover. The inferred relationships of hard coral cover with duration of reserve protection and with herbivore biomass were non-significant. Even at fished sites, coral cover (mostly > 25%) was much higher than macrolgal cover (mostly <15%). Thus, there was no evidence that the current levels of fishing of herbivores on these reefs have led to 'benthic phase shifts'.

- by Brian Stockwell and +1
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- Zoology, Marine Ecology, Ecology, Marine Reserve

The excessive and unsustainable exploitation of marine resources has to led to the promotion of marine reserve as a fisheries management tool. In this paper we study a prey-predator system in a two-patch environment: one accessible to both prey and predators (patch 1) and the other one being a refuge for the prey (patch 2). The prey refuge (patch 2) constitutes a reserve zone of prey and fishing is not permitted, while the unreserved zone area is an open-access fishery zone. The existence of possible steady states, along with their local and global stability, is discussed. We then examine the possibilities of the existence of bionomic equilibrium. An optimal harvesting policy is given using Pontryagin's maximum principle.

- by Swarnakamal Misra
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- Applied Mathematics, Open Access, Pure Mathematics, Nonlinear Analysis

On 1st April 2010, the British Government announced designation of the British Indian Ocean Territoryor Chagos Archipelago -as the world's largest marine protected area (MPA). This near pristine ocean ecosystem now represents 16% of the worlds fully protected coral reef, 60% of the world's no-take protected areas and an uncontaminated reference site for ecological studies. In addition these gains for biodiversity conservation, the Chagos/BIOT MPA also offers subsidiary opportunities to act as a fisheries management tool for the western Indian Ocean, considering its size and location. While the benefits of MPAs for coralreef dwelling species are established, there is uncertainty about their effects on pelagic migratory species. This paper reviews the increasing body of evidence to demonstrate that positive, measurable reserve effects exist for pelagic populations and that migratory species can benefit from no-take marine reserves.

- by David Curnick
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- Fisheries, Coral Reefs, Marine biodiversity, Biodiversity

Populations of the green spiny lobster Panulirus gracilis (Streets 1871) have sustained increasing harvesting pressure in Pacific Panama for decades, but basic information about their biology and ecology in the region is scarce. This study provides baseline data for the densities and biometrics of P. gracilis in Las Perlas and Coiba Archipelagos. The number of surveyed lobsters in both archipelagos was surprisingly low (85 in Las Perlas and 67 in Coiba), and average densities were dismal (4.1 ± 8.8 ind. ha -1 and 5.3 ± 7.6 ind. ha -1 , respectively). Saboga and San Jose Islands had the highest relative densities of P. gracilis in Las Perlas, whereas intermediate relative densities were found only on Coiba Island in the Coiba Archipelago. Lobster density was not associated with either substrate or depth. In Las Perlas, female carapace length (CL) was 40-95 mm and that of males was 25-100 mm; in Coiba, female CL was 45-124 mm and male CL was 45-121 mm. In Las Perlas, the smallest lobster with eggs had a CL ¼ 65 mm and a tail length (TL) ¼ 120 mm, whereas the smallest in Coiba had a CL ¼ 60 mm and a TL ¼ 81-115 mm. We recommend implementing: (1) the minimum capture CL as the average carapace length at which half of the lobster population from Coiba is adult (CL ¼ 84 mm; TL ¼ 112-155 mm); (2) a fishing season no longer than 6 mo; (3) management decisions involving local fishermen and native peoples; (4) marine reserves or no-take areas (NTA); and (5) long-term monitoring plans, as the best current options to insure the survival of P. gracilis in the region.

- by Melina Lopez
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- Zoology, Seasonality, Overfishing, Fishery Management

Namibia's state protected area network (PAN) covers 13.8% of the country's land area, but is seriously inadequate as a basis for effective biodiversity conservation. The early parks system was not designed with biological... more

- by Chris Brown
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- Ecology, Biodiversity, Wildlife Conservation, Biodiversity Conservation

8 Despite the current expansion of community-based 9 marine conservation initiatives in the Pacific, few 10 studies have specifically addressed their ecological 11 efficiency to restore or enhance reef invertebrate 12 resources. This paper investigated the effects of two 13 very small (<0.05 km 2 ) recent village-based marine 14 reserves (tabu areas) located along the shallow fringing 15 reef of Emau island, Vanuatu. Surveys focused on 16 heavily harvested species (namely trochus, giant clams 17 and green snails) and involved both experienced 18 scientists and local villagers. Abundance, density and 19 individual size data were collected by snorkelling 20 along random transect belts located inside and outside 21 the tabu areas, using simple PVC measuring tools 22

- by Marc Leopold and +2
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- Biological Sciences, Environmental Conservation, Environmental Sciences, Marine Reserve

The relationships between fish assemblages, their associated habitat, and degree of protection from fishing were evaluated over a broad spatial scale throughout the main Hawaiian islands. Most fish assemblage characteristics showed positive responses to protection whether it was physical (e.g. habitat complexity), biological (e.g. coral cover growth forms), or human-induced (e.g. marine reserves). Fish biomass was lowest in areas of direct wave exposure and highest in areas partially sheltered from swells. Higher values for fish species richness, number of individuals, biomass, and diversity were observed in locations with higher substrate complexity. Areas completely protected from fishing had distinct fish assemblages with higher standing stock and diversity than areas where fishing was permitted or areas that were partially protected from fishing. Locations influenced by customary stewardship harbored fish biomass that was equal to or greater than that of no-take protected areas. Marine protected areas in the main Hawaiian islands with high habitat complexity, moderate wave disturbance, a high percentage of branching and/or lobate coral coupled with legal protection from fishing pressure had higher values for most fish assemblage characteristics.

- by Paul Jokiel and +3
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- Earth Sciences, Coral Reefs, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences

This study presents a comparative analysis of protected and exploited Mediterranean Sea food webs using standardized ecological models of two ecosystems: the Central-North Adriatic Sea (highly exploited) and the Miramare Natural Marine Reserve (Northern Adriatic Sea, protected since 1986). Food webs are analysed in terms of structural and functional traits including trophic levels, transfer efficiency, trophic role of species and

- by Simone Libralato and +2
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- Biological Sciences, Protein Structure and Function, Mediterranean Sea, Complex System

We review the effects of fishing on benthic fauna, habitat, diversity, community structure and trophic interactions in tropical, temperate and polar marine environments and consider whether it is possible to predict or manage fishing-induced changes in marine ecosystems. Such considerations are timely given the disillusionment with some fishery management strategies and that policy makers need a scientific basis for deciding whether they should respond to social, economic and political demands for instituting or preventing ecosystem-based management.Fishing has significant direct and indirect effects on habitat, and on the diversity, structure and productivity of benthic communities. These effects are most readily identified and last longest in those areas that experience infrequent natural disturbance. The initiation of fishing in an unfished system leads to dramatic changes in fish community structure. As fishing intensity increases the additional effects are more difficult to detect. Fishing has accelerated and magnified natural declines in the abundance of many forage fishes and this has lead to reduced reproductive success and abundance in birds and marine mammals. However, such donor-controlled dynamics are less apparent in food webs where fishes are the top predators since their feeding strategies are rather more plastic than those of most birds and mammals. Fishers tend to target species in sequence as a fishery develops and this leads to changes in the composition of the fished communities with time. The dramatic and apparently compensatory shifts in the biomass of different species in many fished ecosystems have often been driven by environmental change rather than the indirect effects of fishing. Indeed, in most pelagic systems, species replacements would have occurred, albeit less rapidly, in the absence of fishing pressure. In those cases when predator or prey species fill a key role, fishing can have dramatic indirect effects on community structure. Thus fishing has shifted some coral reef ecosystems to alternate stable states because there is tight predator-prey coupling between invertebrate feeding fishes and sea urchins. Fishing has reduced, and locally extirpated, populations of predatory fishes. These reductions do not have a consistent effect on the abundance and diversity of their prey: environmental processes control prey populations in some systems, whereas top-down processes are more important in others. By-catch which is discarded during fishing activities may sustain populations of scavenging species, particularly seabirds. We conclude by identifying the circumstances in which new research is needed to guide managers and stress the importance of unfished control sites for studies of fishing effects. We discuss the advantages and disadvantages of closed area management (marine reserves) and the conditions under which such management is likely to provide benefits for the fishery or ecosystem.

- by Alejandra Neira
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- Marine Biology, Process Control, Environmental Change, Biological Sciences

Much has been written in recent years regarding the advantages of marine protected areas (MPAs) as conservation tools. The benefits to fisheries have commonly been cited as primary motives in favour of the establishment of MPAs. To date, a good deal has been theorised with regard to the benefit of MPAs to fisheries in their adjacent areas, but there has been little empirical evidence to support or refute hypothetical claims. Considerations for fisheries' benefits are different to those of ecological benefits in several respects. Economically, fishers' livelihoods often depend on the marine reserve being successful. It is not enough to establish that populations of fish are growing due to protection; stocks, as well as individual fish have to be sufficiently large to be catchable by the industry. Furthermore, restrictions in fishable area ought to be compensated for by increases in catches over time. In terms of the biology of the fish themselves, evidence has shown that heavily exploited commercial fish stocks can take much longer to recover from overexploitation than previously expected. Although there have been several studies that consider the effects of export and spill-over, there have been few that focus on the patterns that these phenomena might have on the surrounding fisheries; many assume that ecological patterns will manifest in the fishery with time. Recently, assessment methods and predictive models have been suggested for fisheries (e.g. Rapfish, Ecopath/Ecosim), some of which have been adapted specifically for MPAs. In this paper we review recent progress in the field of MPA research with particular focus on fisheries assessment. We also identify priorities, and knowledge gaps, for determining and accurately predicting the benefits of MPAs to fishers.

- by angel perez-ruzafa
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- Multidisciplinary, Prediction Model, Empirical evidence, Marine Protected Area

The establishment of marine protected areas is often viewed as a conflict between conservation and fishing. We considered consumptive and nonconsumptive interests of multiple stakeholders (i.e., fishers, scuba divers, conservationists, managers, scientists) in the systematic design of a network of marine protected areas along California's central coast in the context of the Marine Life Protection Act Initiative. With advice from managers, administrators, and scientists, a representative group of stakeholders defined biodiversity conservation and socioeconomic goals that accommodated social needs and conserved marine ecosystems, consistent with legal requirements. To satisfy biodiversity goals, we targeted 11 marine habitats across 5 depth zones, areas of high species diversity, and areas containing species of special status. We minimized adverse socioeconomic impacts by minimizing negative effects on fishers. We included fine-scale fishing data from the recreational and commercial fishing sectors across 24 fisheries. Protected areas designed with consideration of commercial and recreational fisheries reduced potential impact to the fisheries approximately 21% more than protected areas designed without consideration of fishing effort and resulted in a small increase in the total area protected (approximately 3.4%). We incorporated confidential fishing data without revealing the identity of specific fisheries or individual fishing grounds. We sited a portion of the protected areas near land parks, marine laboratories, and scientific monitoring sites to address nonconsumptive socioeconomic goals. Our results show that a stakeholder-driven design process can use systematic conservation-planning methods to successfully produce options for network design that satisfy multiple conservation and socioeconomic objectives.Marine protected areas that incorporate multiple stakeholder interests without compromising biodiversity conservation goals are more likely to protect marine ecosystems.

- by Bruce Kendall and +4
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- Conservation Biology, Conservation, Conservation planning, Biological Sciences

The success of MPAs in conserving fishing resources and protecting marine biodiversity relies strongly on how well they meet their planned (or implicit) management goals. From a review of empirical studies aiming at assessing the ecological effects of Mediterranean and Macaronesian MPAs, we conclude that establishing an MPA is successful for (i) increasing the abundance/biomass, (ii) increasing the proportion of larger/older individuals, and (iii) enhancing the fecundity of commercially harvested populations; also, MPAs demonstrated to be ARTICLE IN PRESS www.elsevier.de/jnc 1617-1381/$ -see front matter (J.A. García-Charton).

- by angel perez-ruzafa
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- Marine Conservation, Multidisciplinary, Meta Analysis, Marine Protected Area

Reserve and the Egadi Islands Marine Reserve in Sicily, Italy. What managers in these two reserves have neglected to include in management is a social science evaluation scheme to ensure the development of more effective overall management. This is a significant problem in both Italy and the rest of the Mediterranean, where few sociocultural and economic studies have been conducted. Using data collected with standard anthropological field methods, analysis was conducted on how artisanal fishers are impacted by reserves, the extent of their knowledge regarding regulations, their opinions on management, and demographics. The results indicate that while fishers in the two case studies are all aware of the marine reserves where they fish, most fishers are not well informed of the associated regulations. Fishers feel alienated from the management process, and would feel more comfortable with reserve managers and regulations if they were involved in management. The article concludes by showing how such data could help to develop more useful and practical management practices in both these and other MPAs with similar problems.

- by Amber Himes-cornell
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- Coastal Management, Multidisciplinary, Case Study, Data Collection

R ecent reports have raised serious concerns about the rapid declines of historically productive marine fishery resources and the degradation of essential fish habitats. This global crisis has spurred development of innovative management strategies to rebuild depleted fisheries and marine ecosystems. One highly touted strategy involves the design and creation of marine reserves (areas off limits to extractive uses) to rebuild fisheries and conserve marine biodiversity. In this paper, we propose an integrated sequence of methodologies that provides an objective, quantitative framework for the design of marine reserves in spatially heterogeneous coastal ocean environments. The marine reserve designs proposed here satisfy the multiple, often-conflicting criteria of disparate resource user groups. This research is the first attempt to explicitly explore the trade-off between the conservation goals of fishery management and coral reef protection and the consumptive interests of commercial and recreational fishing fleets. The spatial distribution and size abundance of reef fish stocks throughout the Florida Keys coral reef ecosystem were estimated from a database consisting of more than 18,000 visual samples taken from 1979 to 2002. These distributions of multispecies abundance and biomass, in conjunction with a geographic database of coral reef habitats, are used to demonstrate an integer goal programming methodology for the design of networks of marine reserves, called plans. Once multiple plans are proposed, a simulation model is used to assess the effects of reserve size and shape on select Florida Keys reef fish populations under dynamic spatial and temporal conditions.

- by Jerald Ault
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- Geography, Computer Science, Management Science, Marine biodiversity

Biological, oceanographic and geomorphologic data of the Azores were integrated into a Geographical Information System (GIS) in order to determine occurrence and spatial behavior of commercially-exploited coastal fishes in relation to benthic habitats. Essential fish habitats (EFHs) are identified and the information is incorporated into decision making tools to design a network of coastal Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) at an island scale. The Azores are the most isolated archipelago in the North-Atlantic, characterized by complex geologic settings, a variety of marine habitats, diversity of marine life, scarcity of shallow waters and its remoteness. As a result the islands are of great nature conservation and marine biological interest. In the study area of Faial and Pico, two islands of the central group, different zones for environmental protection according to national/regional, Natura 2000 and OSPAR regulations were designated during the last two decades. Recently the Faial-Pico Channel was declared as Nature Park. MPAs gain importance as fisheries management tool and for the conservation of biodiversity. Ideally, core populations of the target species are protected in the boundaries of a MPA and it serves as refuge. Still, practical effort to design and manage marine reserves based on a multi-species approach is scarce. In order to support and refine the existing zoning schemes and to define new coastal MPAs different datasets are brought together in this study: 1) geomorphologic data, including depth, bottom type, slope and distance to e.g. nearest rock. The information is extracted from habitat maps derived by seafloor mapping with multibeam; 2) oceanographic data, based on average literature data for chlorophyll a, sea surface temperature, currents and swell; and 3) biological data: predicted fish abundances based on visual census from over ten years and patterns of spatial behavior obtained by passive and active acoustic underwater telemetry for important coastal commercial species. All information is visualized as layers in ArcGIS and for the first time GIS modelling of all available data combined in one approach is done. The aim is to develop comprehensive and clear maps that illustrate species distribution related to (a)biotic factors and are comprehendible for the public and policy makers. Areas fundamental for the long-term survival of fishes (i.e. spawning grounds) and thus for sustainable fishery are identified (EFH). First results are presented. In the next step decision making tools (software like MARXAN) will be applied to consider animal behaviour, environmental data and the needs of different stakeholders in one approach for the design of a MPA network in the Azores. Furthermore, the possibility of using advanced Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) technology to enhance acoustic telemetry and the study of marine animals is investigated: for a prolonged time certain electronic tags of animals are able to register and store data like (animal/water) temperature, depth and any biological information measurable via suitable, integrated sensors. Special equipped AUVs are a potential tool to download those data; so far only feasible if the tag can be retrieved. First tests for target tracking and exclusion of interference between AUV and telemetry equipment are promising (GREX project). Making this technology available in the future would give a unique opportunity to gain important information about spatial behavior of marine animals even when they are out of our range. Understanding the behavior and spatial use of endangered species will help us finding the best solution for their protection. I.

- by Ricardo Santos
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- Environmental Science, Decision Making, Marine Protected Areas, Marine Engineering

- by MARK DIMZON
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- Assessment, Aquaculture, Growth, Fisheries Sciences

The excessive and unsustainable exploitation of our marine resources has led to the promotion of marine reserves as a fisheries management tool. Marine reserves, areas in which fishing is restricted or prohibited, can offer opportunities for the recovery of exploited stock and fishery enhancement. In this paper we examine the contribution of fully protected tropical marine reserves to fishery enhancement by modeling marine reserve-fishery linkages. The consequences of reserve establishment on the long-run equilibrium fish biomass and fishery catch levels are evaluated. In contrast to earlier models this study highlights the roles of both adult (and juvenile) fish migration and larval dispersal between the reserve and fishing grounds by employing a spawner-recruit model. Uniform larval dispersal, uniform larval retention and complete larval retention combined with zero, moderate and high fish migration scenarios are analyzed in turn. The numerical simulations are based on Mombasa Marine National Park, Kenya, a fully protected coral reef marine reserve comprising approximately 30% of former fishing grounds. Simulation results suggest that the establishment of a fully protected marine reserve will always lead to an increase in total fish biomass. If the fishery is moderately to heavily exploited, total fishery catch will be greater with the reserve in all scenarios of fish and larval movement. If the fishery faces low levels of exploitation, catches can be optimized without a reserve 453 454 RODWELL, BARBIER, ROBERTS AND McCLANAHAN but with controlled fishing effort. With high fish migration from the reserve, catches are optimized with the reserve. The optimal area of the marine reserve depends on the exploitation rate in the neighboring fishing grounds. For example, if exploitation is maintained at 40%, the 'optimal' reserve size would be 10%. If the rate increases to 50%, then the reserve needs to be 30% of the management area in order to maximize catches. However, even in lower exploitation fisheries (below 40%), a small reserve (up to 20%) provides significantly higher gains in fish biomass than losses in catch. Marine reserves are a valuable fisheries management tool. To achieve maximum fishery benefits they should be complemented by fishing effort controls.

- by Lynda Rodwell
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- Applied Mathematics, Coral Reefs, Fisheries Management, Numerical Simulation

Although larval dispersal is crucial for the persistence of most marine populations, dispersal connectivity between sites is rarely considered in designing marine protected area networks. In particular the role of structural characteristics (known as topology) for the network of larval dispersal routes in the conservation of metapopulations has not been addressed. To determine reserve site configurations that provide highest persistence values with respect to their connectivity characteristics, we model nine connectivity topological models derived from graph theory in a demographic metapopulation model. We identify reserve site configurations that provide the highest persistence values for each of the metapopulation connectivity models. Except for the minimally connected and fully connected populations, we observed two general 'rules of thumb' for optimising the mean life time for all topological models: firstly place the majority of reserves, so that they are neighbours of each other, on the sites where the number of connections between the populations is highest (hub), secondly when the reserves have occupied the majority of the vertices in the hub, then select another area of high connectivity and repeat. If there are no suitable hubs remaining then distribute the remaining reserves to isolated locations optimising contact with non-reserved sites.

- by Vanessa M Adams
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- Graph Theory, Marine Conservation, Multidisciplinary, Ecological Modelling

Extensive and unregulated harvest of marine ornamental fishes can lead to localized depletion of target species and habitat degradation from inappropriate collecting techniques. One potential solution to these problems is the creation of marine reserves where fishing is prohibited. Marine reserves have been shown to increase fish abundance and protect ecosystems from habitat destruction associated with fishing. If protective areas

- by Alan Friedlander
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- Habitat complexity, Protected Area, Marine Protected Area, Marine Reserve

Conservation in New Zealand is failing to halt an ongoing decline in biodiversity. Classical problems of ecosystem loss and fragmentation have largely been countered in some regions by reservation of 30% of total land area. Unsustainable harvesting of native biodiversity has stopped; indeed harvesting of terrestrial species is rare. In contrast, marine reserves do not cover even 1% of the managed area, and harvest of native species, some of it unsustainable, are a major industry. Introduced pests, especially mammals, are the overwhelming conservation problem. Legislation, management, and considerable public opinion is based on preservationist ideals that demand the sanctity of native land biodiversity. Considerable success in threatened species management, island eradications, and mainland control of pests is increasing opportunities for restoration. New legislation is increasingly built on concepts of sustainability and offers the opportunity for integrating conservation, use, and development. Realization of these opportunities requires greater understanding of the relative merits of preservation versus sustainability, the dynamics and costs of pest control, the need for ecosystem processes in addition to individual species, and the involvement of people, especially the rights of indigenous Maori. Understanding marine environments and linking attitudes to land and sea is also a challenge.

- by S. Anderson
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- Economics, Public Opinion, Invasive Species, Biological Sciences

Keywords Marine GIS, acoustic remote sensing, marine geomorphology, benthic 8 habitat, marine reserve/sanctuary/protected area, marine ecology, seafloor/seabed 9 mapping, satellite remote sensing 10

- by Dawn J Wright
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- Oceanography, Remote Sensing, Marine Ecology, Satellite remote sensing

The 2003 Marine Parks Congress recommended networks of marine reserves to be established covering 20-30% of habitats by 2012. Most marine reserves are, however, failing to meet their objectives, the main reason being attributed to lack of funding. In light of the growing need for effectively managed marine reserves, a survey ascertaining tourists' support and willingness to pay extra to stay at reserves managed by the private sector -Hotel Managed Marine Reserves (HMMRs) was conducted at Whale Island Resort, Vietnam. A total of 97.5% support HMMR, 86.3% were willing to pay, the median amounting to US$9.6/ room/night, or 10% of the average room rate, equaling US$67,277 at 60% occupancy.

- by Lynda Rodwell
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- Earth Sciences, Vietnam, Environmental Sciences, Far East

Networks of no-take reserves are important for protecting coral reef biodiversity from climate change and other human impacts. Ensuring that reserve populations are connected to each other and non-reserve populations by larval dispersal allows for recovery from disturbance and is a key aspect of resilience. In general, connectivity between reserves should increase as the distance between them decreases. However, enhancing connectivity may often tradeoff against a network's ability to representatively sample the system's natural variability. This ''representation'' objective is typically measured in terms of species richness or diversity of habitats, but has other important elements (e.g., minimizing the risk that multiple reserves will be impacted by catastrophic events). Such representation objectives tend to be better achieved as reserves become more widely spaced. Thus, optimizing the location, size and spacing of reserves requires both an understanding of larval dispersal and explicit consideration of how well the network represents the broader system; indeed the lack of an integrated theory for optimizing tradeoffs between connectivity and representation objectives has inhibited the incorporation of connectivity into reserve selection algorithms. This article addresses these issues by (1) updating general recommendations for the location, size and spacing of reserves based on emerging data on larval dispersal in corals and reef fishes, and on considerations for maintaining genetic diversity; (2) using a spatial analysis of the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park to examine potential tradeoffs between connectivity and representation of biodiversity and (3) describing a framework for incorporating environmental fluctuations into the conceptualization of the tradeoff between connectivity and representation, and that expresses both in a common, demographically meaningful currency, thus making optimization possible.

- by Glenn R Almany
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- Earth Sciences, Spatial Analysis, Climate Change, Coral Reefs