Mycotoxicosis Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that can be produced in crops and other food commodities both pre-and post-harvest. When ingested, mycotoxins may cause a mycotoxicosis which can result in an acute or chronic disease episode. Chronic conditions have a much greater impact, numerically, on human health globally. Reduced growth and development, immunosupression and cancer are chronic effects that have a higher incidence following continual exposure to low level mycotoxin ingestion as is experienced in many developing countries. It has been estimated that 25% of the world's crops are affected by mould or fungal growth and as stable, natural contaminants of the food chain, mycotoxin reduction requires a multifaceted approach, including farmers, government agencies, food processors and scientists. This can have a significant impact on the cost of food production. International regulatory standards for mycotoxins in food commodities determines the extent of global trade in contaminated commodities.

- by
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- Fungi, Human health, Mycotoxin, Mycotoxicosis

The high prevalence of the Fusarium mycotoxins, deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) in animal feeds in mild climatic zones of Europe and North America results in considerable economic losses, as these toxins affect health and productivity particularly of pigs from all age groups. The use of mycotoxin adsorbents as feed additives is one of the most prominent approaches to reduce the risk for mycotoxicoses in farm animals, and to minimise carry-over of mycotoxins from contaminated feeds into foods of animal origin. Successful aflatoxin adsorption by means of different substances (phyllosilicate minerals, zeolites, activated charcoal, synthetic resins or yeast cell-wall-derived products) has been demonstrated in vivo and in vitro. However, attempts to adsorb DON and ZON have been less encouraging. Here we describe the adsorption capacity of a variety of potential binders, including compounds that have not been evaluated before, such as humic acids. All compounds were tested at realistic inclusion levels for their capacity to bind ZON and DON, using an in vitro method that resembles the different pH conditions in the gastro-intestinal tract of pigs. Mycotoxin adsorption was assessed by chemical methods and distinct bioassays, using specific markers of toxicity as endpoints of toxicity in cytological assays. Whereas none of the tested substances was able to bind DON in an appreciable percentage, some of the selected smectite clays, humic substances and yeast-wall derived products efficiently adsorbed ZON (>70%). Binding efficiency was indirectly confirmed by the reduction of toxicity in the in vitro bioassays. In conclusion, the presented test protocol allows the rapid screening of potential mycotoxin binders. Like other in vitro assays, the presented protocol combining chemical and biological assays cannot completely simulate the conditions of the gastro-intestinal tract, and hence in vivo experiments remain mandatory to assess the efficacy of mycotoxin binders under practical conditions.

- by Maurice Selman and +2
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- Plant Biology, Adsorption, HPLC, Charcoal

Contents Introduction 5 1. Avian Mycosis Caused by Dermatophytes 25 1.1. Avian Favus 25 2. Avian Mycosis Caused by Yeasts 36 2.1. Avian Candidosis 36 2.2. Avian Cryptococcosis 61 2.3. Avian Macrorhabdiosis 82 2.4. Avian... more

- by Mohamed Refai and +1
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- Mycology, Poultry, Mycotoxicosis

Contents Introduction 1 1. Equine Diseases Caused by Dermatophytes 9 2. Equine Diseases Caused by Yeasts 29 2.1. Equine Candidosis 29 2.2. Equine Cryptococcosis 35 2.3. Equine geotrichosis 46 2.4. Equine infections by Malassezia... more

- by Mohamed Refai
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- Mythology, Mycotoxins, Horses, Mycosis

Mycotoxicoses are acute and chronic poisonings caused by mould toxins called mycotoxins. Although acute mycotoxicoses, caused by high mycotoxin levels in food are rare nowadays, they need to be described in order to inform physicians and other health care workers about their symptoms. Children are more sensitive to mycotoxins because of their lower body mass, higher metabolic rate, and underdeveloped organ functions and detoxication mechanisms. Some mycotoxicoses appear only in children, and some are more pronounced in children than in adults. Acute mycotoxicoses in children are reported poorly, mostly because they occur in the tropical regions with poor healthcare coverage. In developed countries healthcare authorities are more concerned about child exposure to low levels of mycotoxins with immunotoxic, genotoxic or carcinogenic properties.

- by Maja Peraica
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- Africa, Fungi, Adolescent, Causality

Mycotoxins can cause various toxic effects in humans. Acute and chronic respiratory diseases were reported after inhalation of organic dust containing toxigenic moulds and mycotoxins, respectively. To gain first insights into health effects from airborne exposure to these compounds, five toxigenic airborne moulds of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium collected at composting plants and eight reference mycotoxins were tested for cytotoxicity in four established cell lines as a surrogate of tissues known or suspected to be targets of toxic effects of mycotoxins. The known mycotoxins sterigmatocystin, fumagillin, verruculogen, penitrem A, and roquefortine C were detected in extracts of the moulds. All five extracts caused serious toxic effects in the cell lines. Sterigmatocystin caused a 80-fold higher toxicity in the A-549 lung cell line compared to Hep-G2 liver cells indicating a specific susceptibility of A-549 to this agent. Since only a minor part of the toxic effects of the extracts in A-549 cells and-to a lesser extent-in the other cell lines could be explained by contents of the identified mycotoxins, the presence of additional mycotoxins or other toxic principles is assumed in the mould extracts. However, the detected mycotoxins in the mould extracts and their distinctive cytotoxicity support the hypothesis that mycotoxins may be involved in the aetiology of lung diseases due to the inhalation of organic dust.

- by Götz Westphal
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- Toxicology, Fungi, Cell line, Respiratory Disease

Well-known plant poisonings such as 'dunsiekte' (seneciosis) and 'jaagsiekte' (crotalariosis) of horses in southern Africa are briefly reviewed. Relatively unfamiliar mycotoxicoses such as stachybotryotoxicosis and perennial rye grass staggers and potentially occurring exotic intoxications such as equine nigropallidal encephalomalacia and ergot alkaloid poisoning are also discussed. This article is aimed at informing the southern African equine practitioner about probable poisonings that might occur locally in horses.

- by Christo Botha
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- Southern Africa, Horses, Mycotoxicosis, Veterinary Sciences

Aflatoxins are well recognized as a cause of liver cancer, but they have additional important toxic effects. In farm and laboratory animals, chronic exposure to aflatoxins compromises immunity and interferes with protein metabolism and multiple micronutrients that are critical to health. These effects have not been widely studied in humans, but the available information indicates that at least some of the effects observed in animals also occur in humans. The prevalence and level of human exposure to aflatoxins on a global scale have been reviewed, and the resulting conclusion was that approximately 4.5 billion persons living in developing countries are chronically exposed to largely uncontrolled amounts of the toxin. A limited amount of information shows that, at least in those locations where it has been studied, the existing aflatoxin exposure results in changes in nutrition and immunity. The aflatoxin exposure and the toxic affects of aflatoxins on immunity and nutrition combine ...

- by Curtis Jolly
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- Engineering, Developing Countries, Negative Affect, Developing Country

Natural contamination of feedstuffs with mycotoxins is considered a major problem affecting the poultry industry in Egypt. Accordingly, this study aimed to compare the ability of different antimycotoxin compounds in the control of mycotoxicosis caused by naturally contaminated diet in broiler chickens. A total of 180 day-old broiler chicks were divided into six groups (30 chicks each group) and kept for a 5-week experimental period. Group 1 was kept as control negative (non mycotoxicated or treated), while group 2 was kept as a positive control (mycotoxicated only). Groups 2-6 were fed ration contaminated with 11 ppb aflatoxins, 3.9 ppb ochratoxins, and 4.2 ppm zearalenone. Groups 3-6 were kept in mycotoxicated ration until 2 weeks of age when clinical signs and lesions were suggestive for mycotoxicosis. Groups 3, 4 and 5 were treated with biological, antioxidant, immunostimulant compounds; respectively. Biological, antioxidants and immunostimulant compounds were given in the drinking water. In group 6, ration was treated with formaldehyde vapor. Performance parameters including body weight, feed consumption and feed conversion rate were recorded weekly. Clinical signs, mortalities and lesions were observed. Serum samples were collected for determination of immunological profile to infectious bursal disease (IBD) virus vaccine. Moreover, liver, kidney and bursa of Fabricius were collected for histopathological examination. Muscles and liver tissue samples were collected for determination of aflatoxins residues. Results revealed significant improvement in performance parameters in treated groups in comparison to non-treated mycotoxicated group, however, antioxidants-treated birds showed the highest performance. The severity of clinical signs and lesions were reduced in the treated chickens compared to non-treated mycotoxicated ones. Significant modulation in immune response toward IBD virus was observed in all treated chickens compared to non-treated mycotoxicated chickens. Histopathological examination of organs of control mycotoxicated birds showed severe degenerative changes which became mild in bursa of Fabricius while returned to normal histological structure in liver and kidney. Residues of aflatoxins in tissues of all groups exceeded the permissible limit with high levels in mycotoxicated control positive group. In conclusion, water treatments with some antimycotoxin agents like biological, antioxidants and immunostimulant compounds greatly counteracted the adverse effect of the naturally contaminated ration with different mycotoxins.

- by Journal of World's Poultry Research JWPR
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- Evaluation, Mycotoxicosis

The in vitro affinity and adsorption capacity of a humic acid, oxihumate, for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) was evaluated, utilizing Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherms. Oxihumate showed a high in vitro affinity for AFB1. The Freundlich isotherm fitted the data better than the Langmuir isotherm, and binding capacities of 10.3, 7.4, and 11.9 mg of AFB1/g of oxihumate at pH 3, 5, and 7, respectively, were calculated. The in vivo efficacy of oxihumate as an aflatoxin binder in male broiler chickens exposed to aflatoxin-contaminated feed from 7 to 42 d of age was also assessed. The efficacy of oxihumate was compared with a commercially available product with a brewers dried yeast (BDY) and brewers fermentation solubles as main active ingredients. A total of 420 birds were assigned to 28 pens, with 15 birds per pen. The following treatments were applied: 1) 0 mg of AFB1 + 0 additives, 2) 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed + 0 additives, 3) 1 mg of AFB1/kg of feed + 3.5 g of oxihumate/kg of feed, 4) ...

- by Constance Van Rensburg
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- Poultry Science, Animal Production, Adsorption, Liver

1. Our objective was to evaluate the toxic effects of aflatoxin B 1 (AFB 1 ) and fumonisin B 1 (FB 1 ), administered singly or in combination to broilers. 2. Feeds were prepared with concentrations equal to 0, 50 and 200 mg AFB 1 /kg, and/or 0, 50 and 200 mg FB 1 /kg, and offered to broiler chicks from 8 to 41 d of age. The experimental design was totally randomised, in a 3 Â 3 factorial arrangement with 9 treatments and 12 birds per treatment. Animals were vaccinated against Newcastle disease on d 14 of life and killed at 41 d. 3. Compared with controls, all mycotoxin-treated groups at 41 d had lower body weight and weight gain, and higher relative heart weight. The relative weight of the liver increased only in birds fed diets containing 200 mg FB 1 , singly or in combination with AFB 1 . 4. At 35 d, all groups receiving mycotoxin-treated rations had reduced geometrical mean antibody titres, with birds from groups fed combinations of AFB 1 and FB 1 /kg having even lower values, when compared to the other groups. 5. Histological changes were observed only in liver from birds fed mycotoxin-contaminated rations, and in kidneys of birds fed the diet containing 200 mg AFB 1 and 200 mg FB 1 /kg. Main alterations included vacuolar degeneration and cell proliferation of bile ducts in the liver, and hydropic degeneration in renal tubules in the kidneys. 6. We concluded that AFB 1 and FB 1 in combination have primarily additive effects on body weight, liver structure and immunological response of broilers at the concentrations used.

- by Carlos Augusto Fernandes Oliveira
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- Animal Production, Kidney, Liver, Animal Feed

Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that contaminate various feedstuffs and agricultural crops. The contamination of food by mycotoxins can occur before production, during storage, processing, transportation or marketing of the food products. High temperature, moisture content and water activity are among the predisposing factors that facilitate the production of mycotoxins in food. Aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins, deoxynivalenol and zearalenone are all considered the major mycotoxins produced in food and feedstuffs. In Africa, mycotoxin contamination is considered to be a major problem with implications that affect human and animal health and economy. Aflatoxin-related hepatic diseases are reported in many African countries. Ochratoxin and fumonisin toxicity in humans and animals is widespread in Africa. The available, updated information on the incidence of mycotoxin contamination, decontamination and its public health importance in Africa is lacking. The aim of this review is to highlight, update and discuss the available information on the incidence of mycotoxins in African countries. The public health implications and the recommended strategies for control of mycotoxins in food and agricultural crops are also discussed.

- by Wageh S Darwish
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- Africa, Public Health, Mycotoxins, Incidence
- by Stoycho Stoev and +2
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- Animal Studies, Bulgaria, Kidney diseases, Food Microbiology

Mycotoxins likely have existed for as long as crops have been grown but recognition of the true chemical nature of such entities of fungal metabolism was not known until recent times. Conjecturally, there is historical evidence of their presence back as far as the time reported in the Dead Sea Scrolls. Evidence of their periodic, historical occurrence exists until the recognition of aflatoxins in the early 1960s. At that time mycotoxins were considered as a storage phenomenon whereby grains becoming moldy during storage allowed for the production of these secondary metabolites proven to be toxic when consumed by man and other animals. Subsequently, aflatoxins and mycotoxins of several kinds were found to be formed during development of crop plants in the field. The determination of which of the many known mycotoxins are significant can be based upon their frequency of occurrence and/or the severity of the disease that they produce, especially if they are known to be carcinogenic. Among the mycotoxins fitting into this major group would be the aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, zearalenone, T-2 toxin, ochratoxin and certain ergot alkaloids. The diseases (mycotoxicoses) caused by these mycotoxins are quite varied and involve a wide range of susceptible animal species including humans. Most of these diseases occur after consumption of mycotoxin contaminated grain or products made from such grains but other routes of exposure exist. The diagnosis of mycotoxicoses may prove to be difficult because of the similarity of signs of disease to those caused by other agents. Therefore, diagnosis of a mycotoxicoses is dependent upon adequate testing for mycotoxins involving sampling, sample preparation and analysis.

- by John Richard
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- Microbiology, Industrial Biotechnology, Fungi, Food Microbiology

Experiments were conducted to deter- mine the ability of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (T-Bind™) sorbent to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxins (AF) or T-2 toxin in male broiler chickens from day of hatch to 21 d of age. In... more

- by George Rottinghaus
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- Poultry Science, Animal Production, Animal Feed, Aflatoxins
- by aristo vojdani
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- Environmental Health, Archives, Fungi, Chronic Disease

The importance of fungal infections in both human and animals has increased over the last decades. This article represents an overview of the different categories of fungal infections that can be encountered in animals originating from environmental sources without transmission to humans. In addition, the endemic infections with indirect transmission from the environment, the zoophilic fungal pathogens with near-direct transmission, the zoonotic fungi that can be directly transmitted from animals to humans, mycotoxicoses and antifungal resistance in animals will also be discussed. Opportunistic mycoses are responsible for a wide range of diseases from localized infections to fatal disseminated diseases, such as aspergillosis, mucormycosis, candidiasis, cryptococcosis and infections caused by melanized fungi. The amphibian fungal disease chytridiomycosis and the Bat White-nose syndrome are due to obligatory fungal pathogens. Zoonotic agents are naturally transmitted from vertebrate a...

- by Frank Ebel
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- Medical Microbiology, Zoonoses, Medical Mycology, Mycotoxins

Humans and animals can be simultaneously exposed through the diet to different mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and fumonisins, which are the most important. Evaluation of the frequency and levels of human and animal exposure to these mycotoxins can be performed by measuring the levels of the relevant biomarkers in urine. Available data on the toxicokinetics of these mycotoxins in animals suggest that aflatoxin M 1 (AFM 1), ochratoxin A (OTA), deoxynivalenol (DON)/de-epoxydeoxynivalenol (DOM-1), alphazearalenol (α-ZOL)/beta-zearalenol (β-ZOL), and fumonisin B 1 (FB 1) can be used as urinary biomarkers. A liquid chromatographic-tandem mass spectrometric method has been developed for simultaneous determination of these mycotoxin biomarkers in human or animal urine. Urine samples were purified and concentrated by a double cleanup approach, using a multitoxin immunoaffinity column and a reversed-phase SPE Oasis HLB column. Separation of the biomarkers was performed by reversedphase chromatography using a multi-step linear methanol-water gradient containing 0.5% acetic acid as mobile phase. Detection and quantification of the biomarkers were performed by triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS). The clean-up conditions were optimised to obtain maximum analyte recovery and high sensitivity. Recovery from spiked samples was performed at four levels in the range 0.03-12 ng mL −1 , using matrix-matched calibration curves for quantification. Mean recoveries of the biomarkers tested ranged from 62 to 96% with relative standard deviations of 3-20%. Enzymatic digestion with βglucuronidase/sulfatase resulted in increased concentrations of the biomarkers, in both human and pig urine, in most samples containing measurable concentrations of DON, DOM-1, OTA, α-ZOL, or β-ZOL. A highly variable increase was observed between individuals. Co-occurrence of OTA and DON in human urine is reported herein for the first time.

- by Michele Solfrizzo
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- Engineering, Biological Sciences, Mycotoxins, Analytical

The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficiency of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) adsorbent to ameliorate the adverse effects of 0.5 to 2 mg of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1)/kg in broiler chicks. The study consisted of 8 dietary treatments, including 4 concentrations of AFB1 (0, 0.5, 1, and 2 mg/kg) with or without HSCAS (0.5%) fed to 8 replicate cages per diet (6 males chicks per cage) from 0 to 21 d of age. Cumulative feed intake, BW gain (P < 0.0001), and G:F (P = 0.004) of birds fed the 2 mg of AFB1/kg of diet were significantly lower in comparison with birds fed 0 to 1 mg of AFB1/kg. Relative liver weight was increased in the 2 mg of AFB1/kg group (P < 0.0001). Dietary HSCAS improved cumulative BW gain (main effect P = 0.06), particularly from 14 to 21 d of age (P = 0.037). Dietary HSCAS also reversed the increase in relative liver weight for birds fed AFB1 (P = 0.019). Dietary AFB1 negatively affected major serum parameters (albumin, total protein, gl...

- by Todd Applegate
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- Poultry Science, Diet, Animal Production, Antioxidants

Evidence for the role of oxidative stress in the pathophysiology of mycotoxin-related illness is increasing. The glutathione antioxidant and detoxification systems play a major role in the antioxidant function of cells. Exposure to mycotoxins in humans requires the production of glutathione on an "as needed" basis. Research suggests that mycotoxins can decrease the formation of glutathione due to decreased gene expression of the enzymes needed to form glutathione. Mycotoxin-related compromise of glutathione production can result in an excess of oxidative stress that leads to tissue damage and systemic illness. The review discusses the mechanisms by which mycotoxin-related deficiency of glutathione may lead to both acute and chronic illnesses.

- by Janette Hope
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- Oxidative Stress, Mycotoxins, Glutathione, Aflatoxin

Aspergillus clavatus intoxication is a highly fatal neuromycotoxicosis of ruminants, especially cattle. It is caused by the ingestion of infected sprouting grain and sorghum beer residue. Locomotor disturbances, tremors and paralysis are observed. Histologically, degeneration and necrosis of larger neurons in the medulla oblongata, the midbrain, the thalamus and the ventral horns of the spinal cord are observed. Although a range of mycotoxins such as patulin, cytochalasin E and pseurotin A have been isolated, there is limited information on which specific mycotoxin or group of mycotoxins are involved during outbreaks of intoxication in livestock. In the present study, two outbreaks of A. clavatus poisoning in cattle are briefly described. Feed samples were collected for fungal identification, and culture and multitoxin analysis. A range of fungal metabolites were detected, and the estimated concentrations (μg/kg) are provided. Both the sprouting barley and brewer's grain were pr...

- by Christo Botha
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- Aspergillus, Disease Outbreaks, South Africa, Mycotoxins

Recent aggressive attacks on innocent citizens have resulted in governments increasing security. However, there is a good case for prevention rather than reaction. Bioweapons, mycotoxins, fungal biocontrol agents (FBCA), and even pharmaceuticals contain, or are, toxins and need to be considered in the context of the new paradigm. Is it desirable to discuss such issues? None of the fungi are (a) as toxic as botulinum toxin from Clostridium botulinum, and (b) as dangerous as nuclear weapons. One toxin may be defined as a pharmaceutical and vice versa simply by a small change in concentration or a moiety. Mycotoxins are defined as naturally occurring toxic compounds obtained from fungi. They are the biggest chronic health risk when incorporated into the diet. The current list of fungal toxins as biochemical weapons is small, although awareness is growing of the threats they may pose. T-2 toxin is perhaps the biggest concern. A clear distinction is required between the biological (fungus) and chemical (toxin) aspects of the issue. There is an obvious requirement to be able to trace these fungi and compounds in the environment and to know when concentrations are abnormal. Many FBCA, produce toxins. This paper indicates how to treat mycotoxicosis and decontaminate mycotoxins. There is considerable confusion and inconsistency surrounding this topic which requires assessment in an impartial and scientific manner.

- by Nelson Lima
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- Microbiology, Plant Biology, Biology, Fungi

The contamination of feed with micotoxin has been a serious problem in animal nutrition. Many existing methods of decontamination are not satisfying due to the toxicological safety and health quality of the fodder materials. It stimulates the scientists to search for the new methods. The use of sorbents in the form of natural and synthetic aluminosilicates is a promising direction. The efficacy of aluminosilicates towards aflatoxins has been proved. However, their influence on other micotoxins is not that obvious. According to the last investigations, the use of aluminosilicates in nutrition does not cause any side effects and widespread pathological effects are observed only when dosage is incorrect. Regarding the analyses that were published, it can be supposed that the addition of several different aluminosilicates is a sufficient protection against mycotoxicoses.

- by Roman Kołacz
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- Biology, Medicine, Animal Feed, Mycotoxicosis

The toxigenic fungal compounds called mycotoxin are poisonous substances produced by different species of fungus. Basically three major genera of fungus are identified to produce mycotoxins: they include Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillum. Although other genera also produces these toxigenic compounds. The presence of mytotoxins in food poses health risk ranging from mild to severe damage to the liver and kidney. Chronic damage may be induced in animals or human after ingestion of small quantity of the toxin present in contaminated foods. For example Aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus, if ingested from contaminated food could pose serious and severe health risk to man and animals. Foods like rice, corn, barley, wheat, sorghum, peanut, cotton seeds, soya bean, silages and by products feeds which have been mishandled are the major sources of mycotoxins. Different species of fungus produce different types of mycotoxins. The disease caused by ingestion of mycotoxins is called myc...

- by Dr. YAKUBU AZEH
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- Chronic, Mycotoxins, Fungus, Mycotoxicosis

Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi that cause a toxic response when ingested by animals or man. Demand of natural fur, such as those from rabbit and chinchilla, produced under controlled conditions, has increased worldwide. The toxicogenic mycoflora contaminating feeds for these animals was enumerated and identified. Six of the major mycotoxins implicated in animal mycotoxicosis were detected and quantified. Moulds count ranged from<10 to4.7×105CFU g-1; 14% of the samples exceeded the limit that determines hygienic feed quality. More than twenty species belonging to the five most important mycotoxigenic mould genera were recovered. Among the analyzed mycotoxins, aflatoxins were recovered in 100% of the examined samples, deoxynivalenol in 95%, fumonisins in 100%, ochratoxin A in 98%, T2 toxin in 98%, and zearalenone in 100%. Cooccurrence of mycotoxins was observed in 100% of the samples analyzed. Exposure to multiple mycotoxins was thus demonstrated...

- by Martino Pablo
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- Microbiology, Fungi, Mycotoxins, Animal Feed
- by Thais M F S Vieira
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- Genetics, Nutraceuticals, Fungi, Gamma Rays

Harmful algal blooms are known to cause morbidity and mortality to a large number of marine and estuarine organisms worldwide, including fish and marine mammals, birds, and turtles. The effects of these algal blooms on marine organisms are due to the various toxins produced by the different algal species. In southwest Florida, frequent blooms of the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis, which produces neurotoxins known as brevetoxins, cause widespread fish kills and affect many marine animals. In 2005-2007, numerous sea turtles of several species underwent treatment for brevetoxicosis at the Sea Turtle Rehabilitation Hospital. In green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, and Kemp's ridley sea turtles, Lepidochelys kempii, symptoms associated with brevetoxicosis were limited to neurologic signs, such as the inability to control the head (head bobbing) and nervous twitching. For these turtles, treatment involved removing the turtles from the environment containing the toxins and providing short-term supportive care. In loggerhead sea turtles, Caretta caretta, symptoms were more generalized; thus, a similar approach was unsuccessful, as was routine treatment for general toxicosis. Loggerhead sea turtles had more extreme neurologic symptoms including coma, and other symptoms that included generalized edema, conjunctival edema, and cloacal or penile prolapse. Treatment of brevetoxicosis in loggerhead sea turtles required a therapeutic regimen that initially included dehydration and systemic antihistamine treatment followed by supportive care.

- by Lynne Byrd
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- Zoology, Reptile, Turtles, Marine Toxins

1. We evaluated the efficacy of yeast glucomannan (Mycosorb Õ ), incorporated into the diet at 0 . 5 and 1 g/kg, in reducing the detrimental effects of 2 mg aflatoxin/kg diet on growing broiler chicks from 1 to 21 d of age. 2. A total of 240 male broiler chicks (Ross-308) was divided into 6 treatment groups [Control, Aflatoxin (AF), Yeast glucomannan (YG; 0 . 5 g/kg), AF plus YG (0 . 5 g/kg), YG (1 g/kg), and AF plus YG (1 g/kg)]. 3. Ten chicks from each of the 6 groups were slaughtered and pathological examinations were performed on the liver, bursa of Fabricius, thymus, spleen and kidney. 4. The aflatoxin treatment caused moderate to severe hydropic/fatty degeneration in the hepatocytes of the liver and the tubular epithelium of the kidneys, and follicular depletion in the bursa of Fabricius, thymus and spleen. 5. Yeast glucomannan added to the aflatoxin-containing diet at 0 . 5 and 1 g/kg diminished the severity of pathological changes, slightly and moderately, respectively. The number of affected organs was also reduced in the group given 1 g/kg yeast glucomannan, compared to the aflatoxin group. 6. These results show that yeast glucomannan effectively diminished the adverse effects of aflatoxin on the pathological changes and that the higher concentration of yeast glucomannan (1 g/kg) was more effective than the lower concentration (0 . 5 g/kg) and itself had no adverse effect.

- by Mustafa Ortatatli and +2
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- Animal Production, Spleen, Kidney, Liver

Stachybotrys atra is often isolated from building materials in houses with moisture problems. Spores of S. atra can contain mycotoxins which may lead to various symptoms in exposed residents in damp houses. The pathogenesis of S. atra-induced lung diseases has not been elucidated. The purpose of the present study was to investigate lung mycotoxicosis experimentally in mice after an intranasal exposure to spores of S. atrafungus. One group of mice received one intranasal injection of spores of a toxic strain of S. atra (1 2 10 6 spores) and the other group spores of a less toxic strain. Spores of both strains contained spirolactones and spirolactams while the highly toxic strain contained also trichothecene mycotoxins, satratoxins. The spores containing satratoxins caused severe intra-alveolar, bronchiolar and interstitial inflammation with haemorrhagic exudative processes in the alveolar and bronchiolar lumen. A significant difference was observed in the severity of the lung damage caused by the two strains of S. atra. The spores without satratoxins induced a milder inflammation, so that the toxic compounds of S. atra-spores are most likely responsible for the severity of the lung injury.

- by Kari Reijula
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- Virulence, Experimental Pathology, Mice, Pneumonia

- by Jonathan Stiles
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- Engineering, Developing Countries, Negative Affect, Developing Country

S.D. Stoev*, M.F. Dutton, P.B. Njobeh, J.S. Mosonik and P.A. Steenkamp Department of General and Clinical Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Trakia University, Students Campus, 6000 Stara Zagora, Bulgaria; Food, Environment and Health Research Group, Faculty of Health Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein 2028, Gauteng, PO Box 17011, South Africa; Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, Biosciences, Ardeer Road, Private Bag x2, Modderfontein, 1645, South Africa

- by Stoycho Stoev
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- Animal Studies, Biology, Bulgaria, Kidney diseases

- by vania vicente
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- Medical Microbiology, Zoonoses, Medical Mycology, Mycotoxins

Objectives: Investigations were carried out to determine aflatoxin levels in household maize in Makueni District and to correlate aflatoxin levels to maize drying and storage practices. Also, aflatoxin exposure in villages that reported aflatoxicosis cases in 2005 was compared with that in villages that did not report cases to assess whether aflatoxin exposure levels could be used to identify high-risk villages for targeted prevention interventions. Design: A cross-sectional study. Setting: Three divisions of Makueni district, Kibwezi, Makindu and Mtito Andei in Eastern Province, Kenya. Subjects: Ninety six households were surveyed, and 104 maize samples were analysed for total aflatoxin levels from June to July 2005. The households were selected from high and low aflatoxicosis risk areas. Results: Out of the 104 maize samples collected from 96 households, 37 (35.5%) had aflatoxin levels above the World Health Organisation (WHO) recommended maximum limit of 20 ppb. All of these samples were homegrown or purchased. Twenty one samples (20.1%) had levels above 100 ppb. Eleven (10.6%) had extremely high levels above 1,000 ppb. No relief supply maize had aflatoxin levels above the WHO maximum limit. Conclusion: High levels of aflatoxin in homegrown and purchased maize suggested that aflatoxin exposure was widespread.

- by Joseph Njau
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- Agriculture, Kenya, Risk factors, Aflatoxins

- by Daniel Elad
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- Medical Microbiology, Zoonoses, Medical Mycology, Mycotoxins
- by Lilia Cavaglieri
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- Argentina, Veterinary, Disease Outbreaks, Liver

Ergot alkaloids (EAs) are a group of mycotoxins that are mainly produced from the plant pathogen Claviceps. Claviceps purpurea is one of the most important species, being a major producer of EAs that infect more than 400 species of monocotyledonous plants. Rye, barley, wheat, millet, oats, and triticale are the main crops affected by EAs, with rye having the highest rates of fungal infection. The 12 major EAs are ergometrine (Em), ergotamine (Et), ergocristine (Ecr), ergokryptine (Ekr), ergosine (Es), and ergocornine (Eco) and their epimers ergotaminine (Etn), egometrinine (Emn), egocristinine (Ecrn), ergokryptinine (Ekrn), ergocroninine (Econ), and ergosinine (Esn). Given that many food products are based on cereals (such as bread, pasta, cookies, baby food, and confectionery), the surveillance of these toxic substances is imperative. Although acute mycotoxicosis by EAs is rare, EAs remain a source of concern for human and animal health as food contamination by EAs has recently increased. Environmental conditions, such as low temperatures and humid weather before and during flowering, influence contamination agricultural products by EAs, contributing to the appearance of outbreak after the consumption of contaminated products. The present work aims to present the recent advances in the occurrence of EAs in some food products with emphasis mainly on grains and grain-based products, as well as their toxicity and control strategies.

- by Sofia Agriopoulou
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- Food Safety, Quality, Biological Control, Post Harvest Technology

In earlier work, we have reported that a phyllosilicate clay (HSCAS or NovaSil) can tightly and selectively bind the aflatoxins in vitro and in vivo. Since then, a variety of untested clay and zeolitic minerals have been added to poultry and livestock feeds as potential ''aflatoxin binders.'' However, the efficacy and safety of these products have not been determined. A common zeolite that has been frequently added to animal feed is clinoptilolite. Our objectives in this study were twofold: (1) to utilize the pregnant rat as an in vivo model to compare the potential of HSCAS and clinoptilolite to prevent the developmental toxicity of aflatoxin B 1 (AfB 1 ), and (2) to determine the effect of these two sorbents on the metabolism and bioavailability of AfB 1 . Clay and zeolitic minerals (HSCAS or clinoptilolite) were added to the diet at a level of 0.5% (w/w) and fed to pregnant Sprague-Dawley rats throughout pregnancy (i.e., day 0 to 20). Treatment groups (HSCAS or clinoptilolite) alone and in combination with AfB 1 were exposed to sorbents in the feed as well as by gavage. Untreated and AfB 1 control animals were fed the basal diet without added sorbent. Between gestation days 6 and 13, animals maintained on diets containing sorbent were gavaged with corn oil in combination with an amount of the respective sorbent equivalent to 0.5% of the estimated maximum daily intake of feed. Animals receiving AfB 1 were dosed orally (between days 6 and 13) with AfB 1 (2 mg/kg body wt) either alone or concomitantly with a similar quantity of the respective sorbent. Evaluations of toxicity were performed on day 20. These included: maternal (mortality, body weights, feed intake, and litter weights), developmental (embryonic resorptions and fetal body weights), and histological (maternal livers and kidneys). Sorbents alone were not toxic; AfB 1 alone and with clinoptilolite resulted in significant maternal and developmental toxicity. Animals treated with HSCAS (plus AfB 1 ) were comparable to controls. Importantly, clinoptilolite (plus AfB 1 ) resulted in severe maternal liver lesions (more severe than AfB 1 alone), suggesting that this zeolite may interact with dietary components that modulate aflatoxicosis. In metabolism studies, adult male Sprague-Dawley rats, main-tained on diets containing 0.5% (w/w) HSCAS or clinoptilolite, were dosed orally with 2.0 mg AfB 1 /kg body wt. The concentration of the major urinary metabolite (AfM 1 ) was considerably decreased in the presence of HSCAS. These results suggest that the mechanism of protection of AfB 1 -induced maternal and developmental toxicities in the rat may involve adsorption and reduction of AfB 1 bioavailability in vivo. Importantly, this study demonstrates the potential for significant hidden risks associated with the inclusion of nonselective aflatoxin binders in feeds. Aflatoxin sorbents should be rigorously tested individually and thoroughly characterized in vivo, paying particular attention to their effectiveness and safety in sensitive animal models and their potential for deleterious interactions.

- by mosaad abdel-wahhab
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- Maternal Mortality, Zeolites, Pregnancy, Animal Model

The amelioration of aflatoxicosis in Japanese quails was examined by the dietary addition of live yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae; SCE). Yeast incorporated into the diet at 1 g kg À1 was evaluated for its ability to reduce the deleterious effects of 2Á5 mg total aflatoxin (AF; 82Á30 per cent AFB 1 , 2Á06 per cent AFB 2 , 7Á68 per cent AFG 1 and 7Á96 per cent AFG 2 ) kg À1 diet on growing Japanese quail chicks from 10 days to 45 days of age. Forty 10-day-old Japanese quail chicks were assigned to 2 Â 2 factorial arrangement of treatments (control, AF, SCE, AF plus SCE) each consisting of 10 quails. The performances of birds were evaluated. The AF treatment significantly and dramatically decreased food consumption and body-weight gain from the first week onwards. The significant adverse effect of AF on the food conversion ratio was also determined from week 1 to the end of the experiments. The addition of SCE to the AF-containing diet significantly reduced these deleterious effects of AF on food consumption, body-weight gain and food conversion ratio. Compared to controls, the cumulative body weight gain was reduced by 37 per cent among the quails consuming AF without SCE, but increased 15 per cent for the birds fed AF plus SCE. Interestingly, the single inclusion of SCE to the AF-free diet provided significant improvements in all the investigated growth performances of birds (approximately 40 per cent) compared to controls.

- by mustafa özcan
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- Animal Production, Veterinary Science, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Food Consumption
- by Muhammad Siddique
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- International organizations, Diet, Animal Production, Spleen

- by A. Guracha
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- Agriculture, Kenya, Risk factors, Aflatoxins

The objective of this study was to determine the effect of long-term (48 d), per os animal administration of low zearalenone (ZEA) doses (50% and 100% NOAEL values) on the dynamics of changes in the morphometric parameters of the reproductive organs in sexually-immature gilts. The experiment involved 12 clinically-healthy gilts aged 2 months with initial body weight of ± 40 kg and a determined immune status. The animals were randomly divided into two experimental groups (E1, n=4; E2, n=4) and a control group (C, n=4). Group E1 was administered per os 20 µg of ZEA/kg b.w. for 48 d, group E2 received per os 40 µg of ZEA/kg b.w. for 48 d, and group C was administered per os placebo for 48 d. The mycotoxin was administered daily per os animal in gelatin capsules before morning feeding. The animals were slaughtered at the end of the experiment. No significant morphometric changes were noted in the reproductive system of the gilts, except for an increase in the number of medium-sized ovarian follicles in group E1. This suggests that ZEA at low concentrations may cause hormonal effects (hyperoestrogenism) but it does not exhibit xenobiotic activity.

- by Kazimierz Obremski
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- Immunohistochemistry, Theriogenology, Biological Sciences, Low Dose
- by Claudia Probst
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- Kenya, Multidisciplinary, Disease Outbreaks, Applied Environmental Microbiology

*atefhassan2000@yahoo.com
Abstract : The present study was undertaken to investigate the causes of Sudden death in a turkey farms at El-Wadi
El-Gadid and Giza Governorates. The Post mortems examination of forty representative cases, showed enlargement
and hemorrhages of liver, spleen, lung, kidney and muscles. Aspergillus flavus, A.niger, A.funigatus and Penicillium
citrinum, were isolated in dominating frequency but Fusarium sporotrichioides, F. tricinctum and F. oxysporum
were rarely isolated from these organs. The same fungi were recovered from houses of dead turkey (Feed, litter, air,
underground water and dropping). From 122 of these strains isolated from houses of turkey, 110 were
mycotoxigenic (90.1%), the ratio between the numbers of isolates screened for toxin production versus the number
found to be positive is of interest. 85.3% of Aspergillus flavus produced aflatoxins, 80% of A. ochraceus produced
ochratoxin A and 80% of F. Sporotrichioides and 100% of F. tricinctum and F. oxysporum produced T-2 toxins.
The majority of mycotoxic fungi were detected in feed (90%) and 100% in litter which could be considered as the
main sources of this toxicosis. On the other hand, the mycotoxins were detected in utilized feeds in significant
levels. The mean levels of aflatoxins 35.0±1.5ppb were detected in 76.6% of examined wheat, 80.0±1.0 ppb of
ochratoxins detected in 40% while 19.5±0.02 ppb of T-2 was recovered from 15% of examined wheat samples.
Also, the higher significant mean levels were observed in utilized yellow corn in feeding of diseased turkey
(42.5±2.6 ppb of aflatoxins and 51.0±0.01 ppb of ochratoxins). The same mycotoxins were also detected in sera of
diseased live birds, 40% of turkey sera had a mean levels of 4.74±0.01 ppb aflatoxins, 20% had 1.200±0.03 ppb of
ochratoxins and 50% of examined diseased turkey sera had a mean levels of 52.0±0.2 ppb T-2 toxins. The foregoing
results gave a large probability that the feed, water, litters are the sources of these toxicosis. The biochemical
parameters and electrophoresis patterns were significantly altered in diseased birds. The hygienic significance of
fungal and mycotoxins pollution for turkeys health had been discussed.
[Hassan, A. A; Nahed, M.El Mokhtar and Samira, A.M. Snousi. Studies On Acute Mycotoxicosis In Turkey. New
York Science Journal 2011;4(5):82-91]. (ISSN: 1554-0200). http://www.sciencepub.net/newyork

- by atef A hassan
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- Mycology, Veterinary Medicine, Turkey, Aspergillus

Chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera) are known to be very sensitive to aflatoxins, and often a large number of animals die if toxicosis occurs. An outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis on a chinchilla farm in Argentina is described in the present study. A commercial feed suspected of causing the death of 200 animals was sampled. Livers from 9 dead chinchillas were analyzed for their macroscopic and microscopic characteristics via necropsy and histopathology. Aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G 1 , and G 2 were determined, by thin layer chromatography, to be in the feed. Macroscopic inspection of livers revealed general enlargement, paleyellowish coloration, hypertrophy, rounded borders, and increased friability. Size and color were remarkably different from a healthy organ. Histopathologic analyses of hepatic parenchyma showed severe, diffuse cytoplasmic vacuolation of hepatocytes. Sudan III staining confirmed the presence of lipid within the vacuoles. The feed was positive for aflatoxin B 1 in quantities that exceeded the recommended levels. Histologic lesions were typical of aflatoxin intake. Monitoring feed for mycotoxins is crucial to prevent outbreaks of toxicosis, to improve management practices, and to diminish exposure risk of animals and humans to these harmful toxins.

- by María Laura González Pereyra
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- Argentina, Veterinary, Disease Outbreaks, Liver

- by Renata Gomes
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- Medical Microbiology, Biology, Zoonoses, Medicine

- by Sybren de Hoog
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- Medical Microbiology, Biology, Zoonoses, Medicine

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of L-carnitine supplementation on the plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) and whole blood reduced glutathione (GSH) concentrations in experimentally-induced chronic aflatoxicosis in quails. For this purpose, a total of 80 quails up to 8 weeks old were divided into four equal groups. Group I served as control, Group II was given L-carnitine at the dose of 200 mg/litre in the drinking water for 60 days, Group III was given 60 µg total aflatoxin/kg diet for 60 days, and Group IV was given both 60 µg total aflatoxin/kg diet and 200 mg L-carnitine/litre in the drinking water for 60 days. Aflatoxin treatment caused a significant increase in plasma MDA and a significant decrease in blood GSH concentrations. On the other hand, there was a significant decrease in plasma MDA and a significant increase in whole blood GSH in the L-carnitine-supplemented group. The present study demonstrated that L-carnitine brought about the inhibition of lipid peroxidati...

- by mehmet tuzcu
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- Animal Feed, Dietary Supplements, Lipid peroxidation, Aflatoxins

The contamination of food and feed by mycotoxins as toxic metabolites of fungi is a risk not only for consumers resulting in various embarrassment regarding health status and well-being, but also for producers, companies and export market on the ground of economic losses and ruined stability of economic trade. As it is given in historical evidence, the contamination of food by mycotoxins is a topic as old as a history of mankind, finding some evidence even in the ancient books and records. Nowadays, the mycotoxins are used in modern biotechnological laboratories and are considered an agent for targeting the specific cells (e.g., defected cells to eliminate them). However, this promising procedure is only the beginning. More concern is focused on mycotoxins as abiotic hazard agents. The dealing with them, systematic monitoring, and development of techniques for their elimination from agricultural commodities are worldwide issues concerning all countries. They can be found alone or in co-occurrence with other mycotoxins. Thus, this review aims to provide widened information regarding mycotoxins contamination in environment with the consequences on health of animals and humans. The inevitability for more data that correctly determine the risk points linked to mycotoxins occurrence and their specific reactions in the environment is demonstrated. This review includes various symptoms in animals and humans that result from mycotoxin exposure. For better understanding of mycotoxin's impact on animals, the sensitivities of various animal species to various mycotoxins are listed. Strategies for elimination and preventing the risks of mycotoxins contamination as well as economical approach are discussed. To complete the topic, some data from past as historical evidences are presented.

- by Peter Bielik
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- Business, Fungi, Environmental Pollution, Medicine

- by Wageh Sobhy Darwish
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- Africa, Public Health, Mycotoxins, Incidence

Maize contaminated with aflatoxins has been implicated in deadly epidemics in Kenya three times since 1981, but the fungi contaminating the maize with aflatoxins have not been characterized. Here we associate the S strain of Aspergillus... more

- by Henry Njapau
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- Kenya, Multidisciplinary, Disease Outbreaks, Applied Environmental Microbiology