Virtual Schooling Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

Since the early 1930s, elementary and secondary students have learned through the use of electronic distance learning systems. Several benefits have been reported for K-12 distance education: increased access to education for students with a wide range of needs, flexibility in the speed and schedule of learning, greater parental influence on education. However, some researchers have found that the effectiveness of distance education depends on the contexts in which it occurs. The research on the effects of ...

- by J. Kromrey
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- Virtual Schooling, Academic achievement, Meta Analysis

This paper presents an overview of the relevant literature in the field of the K-12 e-Learning. The literature suggests that e-Learning at the K-12 level has been growing exponentially. The main focus of this paper is to describe some foundational concepts such as what is K-12 e-learning, how has it grown, how is the technology employed, and what is the role of an e-teacher. Researchers in the field agree that K-12 e-learning is a form of distance education in which teacher and learners are separated in time or space, and occur through an organization, which offers formal instruction via the internet. The types of e-Learning have been identified. The growth and rationale for e-Learning have been described. Some other relevant aspects of K-12 e-Learning such as virtual school management and student support have been discussed. The challenges of K-12 online learning are also a part of this paper. The necessary attributes for successful online learning environments.

- by Michael Barbour and +1
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning
- by Denise Wood
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- Music, Communication, Teaching and Learning, Education
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

Saudi government is striving to integrate technology at all school levels. In many schools English language is being taught
through modern digital technology. Intel program has been launched to integrate technology in teaching and learning in Saudi
Arabia. Qualitative research study was used to investigate English language teachers’ readiness to integrate technology in
Sabt Al-Alaia, Aseer region in Saudi Arabia. 12 in-service English language teachers participated in this study. Data were
collected through structured and semi structured interviews. We found five main themes, (a) Understanding of technology, (b)
Use of technology for learning and motivation, (c) Types of technology, (d) Teachers’ main concerns, and (e) Teachers’
unawareness of Intel program. Participants complained about lack of funding, scarcity of technology in schools and paucity of
proper training to use technology. Sabt Al-Alaia regional schools do not have access to technology as their counter parts in
other regions of Saudi Arabia. However, all the participants were willing to use technology to teach English as a foreign
language. The paper includes implications of evaluation findings, recommendations for policy and directions for further
research.

- by Nadeem Saqlain and +1
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- Rural Development, Virtual Schooling, Rural education, TESL/TEFL

In this paper, the author situates school choice within the field of K-12 online learning, specifically the use of full-time K-12 online learning in the form of cyber charter schools. The author then examines the use of cyber charter schools as a mechanism for school choice in K-12 online learning, specifically the effectiveness of cyber charter schools. This examination focuses on not just the findings, but critically examines the sources (and potential motivations) for those findings. Given the growth of full-time K-12 online learning, and the continued pressure by proponents to create favorable regulatory climates for cyber charter schools, a critical – but honest – examination of student outcomes is long overdue.

- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning, Cyber Schools
- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Course Development, K-12 Online Learning
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

4 Introduction 5 Distance Education in the K–12 Context 5 Characteristics for Success 6 Teaching and Learning Theory 7 Purpose of the Study 8 Method 10 Location and Selection of Studies 11 Limitations of the Review 13 Coding of Study Features 13 Calculation of Effect Sizes 14 Statistical Analysis of Effect Sizes 15 Results 15 Characteristics of the Study 15 Overall Effects on K–12 Distance Education 16 Publication and Methodological Variables 18 Distance Education Variables 18 Instructional and Program Variables 19 Discussion 19 Implications for Research and Practice 19 Conclusions 21 The Need for Prospective Study in Virtual Schooling 22 Recommendations for K–12 Online Learning Policy and Practice 23 References 26 Appendix: Coded Variables and Study Features in the Codebook 32

- by kathy gillan
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- Computer Science, Virtual Schooling, Academic achievement, Meta Analysis

How did families handle remote schooling during the time of Covid-19 lockdown during spring 2020? Perceptions on remote schooling activities were gathered from parents and their children at the end of primary education and in secondary... more

- by Stephane Chaudron and +2
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- Virtual Schooling, COVID-19 PANDEMIC
- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning, K-12 online learning;

LA ESCUELA EN LA NUBE. EL FUTURO DEL APRENDIZAJE MITRA, S. (2020) Barcelona: Paidós. 272 págs. La escuela moderna, según Sugata Mitra, autor de este ensayo, se parece mucho a la de hace 300 años. El profesor frente a una clase, los alumnos en pupitres ordenados: este sistema se desarrolló bajo el Imperio Británico. Pero con el auge de Internet, la memoriza-ción de datos ya no es tan importante. Para los trabajos del futuro, los estudiantes deben aprender a pensar de forma crítica. Este es el cambio de paradigma que Sugata Mitra espe-ra introducir con la Escuela en la Nube. Además de abrir laboratorios físicos de aprendizaje, está creando la "Nube de las Abuelos/as", una red mundial de profesores jubilados/as que apoyan a los niños/as a través de una plataforma en línea de la Escuela en la Nube. Su objetivo: compartir el método del Entorno de Aprendizaje Autogestionado (SOLE) con padres, profesores, programas extraescolares y comunidades de todo el mundo, y transformar la forma de aprender de los niños.

Arnesen, K. T., Hveem, J., Short, C. R., West, R., & Barbour, M. K. (2019). K-12 online learning journal articles: Trends from two decades of scholarship. Distance Education, 40(1), 32-53.

In this study, we examined the research literature in the field of K-12 online learning to identify the leading scholars, journals, top cited articles, research methods, and topics in this field of inquiry. Our research process involved collecting a corpus of journal articles focused on K-12 online and distance learning; categorizing these articles according to their research methodologies; analyzing trends not only in methodologies employed but also in authorship, citations, journals, and topics addressed. We found the field of K-12 online learning to be growing rapidly in recent years with acceleration not only of new articles but especially of new authors. We also found the field began primarily with emphasizing theoretical articles but is now maturing and emphasizing increasingly more data-based articles. We found K-12 online learning scholarship is scattered among many journals, providing rich opportunities for scholars while also making it more difficult to discern trends across the discipline.

- by Michael Barbour and +1
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

From the perspective of alternative education philosophies, compulsory schooling seems ridiculous. Firstly there are the human and children's rights issues. The lack of care for the dignity of the person, the physical violence, the potential abuse because of power structures and so on. A perspective on compulsory schooling which performs like this is connected to schools as a social function in ways that emerge from within the failing aspects of the centre of the schooling enterprise. They are its shadow side but also perhaps its source of most hope. Secondly there is the law. In many countries schooling is not compulsory in any way. The UK and America are two countries where this reality has taken on a power and a life that begins - because of the growing numbers of home educators - to challenge the possibility of an assumption that education is schooling and to challenge also the philosophy that goes with it. Education alone is fairly compulsory these days. The mechanism by which that truth bears itself out varies and can vary. In countries where this “truth” is not the case and it is schooling that is indeed compulsory, interesting factors contribute to that situation: in Germany the compulsory nature of schooling was enshrined in law by Adolf Hitler and has not been changed since. In Sweden where home education becomes close to impossible, complaints of the rise of the political far right temporally tally with complaints from parents who find their choice about educating their children diminishes to the point where the state is the educator of the child. And so we are back to human rights, but this time of parents. This chapter will examine the very idea of compulsory schooling from the point of view of an alternative world of education, where different rules apply. This will highlight the role of educational philosophy from and in an alternative education perspective.

- by Helen E Lees
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- Education, Educational Technology, Educational Leadership, Alternative Education
- by Helen E Lees
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- Cultural Studies, Gender Studies, Education, Social Policy

K-12 Online Learning has exponentially grown in the last 15 years. An estimated 1.2 million K-12 students took online classes last year; 45 states currently have some form of online learning at the state-level; and some states mandate some sort of online experience prior to high school graduation. Given its dramatic growth and ubiquity in K-12 schooling, it is critical that administrators learn more about K-12 schooling and the role it may play in their district or building. Unfortunately, there is not one single model of K-12 online schooling. Therefore, there is not one suggested set of recommendations, learnings, or best practices administrators should pay attention to. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce administrators to some of the more generic models of K-12 virtual schooling, the new roles that are created with this innovative form of teaching and learning, and any research that might impact decision-making at the building or district levels.

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

What Works in K–12 Online Learning provides an overview of online teaching and learning practices. Based on extensive experience and research, chapters cover a spectrum of topics including virtual course development, online learning in elementary classrooms, instructional assessment and differentiating online instruction, professional development for teachers of virtual courses, and the challenges that virtual schools will face.

- by Cathy Cavanaugh
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- Online Instruction, Virtual Schooling, Online Learning, Professional Development

In this literature review, the authors examined three key areas that were chosen as relevant to the challenges faced by small rural schools, and collaborative practice between schools working in virtual learning environments in New Zealand. The first area was rural education, where definitions of rurality and the demographics and characteristics of small rural New Zealand schools were described, and the challenges and innovations in rural school setting were explored. The second area was collaborative practice, where features of effective collaboration were discussed as is the professional practice and theory that underpins collaboration across school networks. Finally, the third area was virtual learning, which was defined and described, along with the benefits and challenges of learning in virtual environments, and the growth of networked learning communities in New Zealand was chronicled. A comprehensive scope of the current New Zealand education landscape was included to provide the context in which this review resides.

- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Rural education, Primary School, Virtual Learning
- by Michael Barbour and +1
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- Virtual Schooling

K-12 online learning is growing in Canada and elsewhere in the world. However, the vast majority of literature is focused on practitioners and not on systematic inquiry. Even the limited published research has largely excluded the perspectives of students engaged in virtual schooling. This study examines secondary student perceptions of components of virtual schooling that were beneficial and challenging.
Students largely enjoyed their virtual school courses and found the synchronous classes, the technology, and the ability to control their own learning as positive aspects of their experience.
Students also found the lack of a sense of community, working during their asynchronous class time, and the asynchronous course content to be challenging; and made suggestions for improvement to each, along with advice to future virtual school students.

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

There is a shift occurring in education systems around the world, which could change the face of education as we have known it through blended and online learning. The purpose of this chapter is to describe the current e-learning initiatives and projects for students in secondary schools in Singapore. An overview of the Singapore education system, along with a more in depth look at the current e-Learning initiatives and how they evolved are shared. Finally, a specific look at how e-learning has been implemented within Singapore’s secondary schools is described. The research in this chapter looked at both the policy and practices happening within Singapore’s education system.

- by Michael Barbour
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- E-learning, K-12 Distance Learning, Singapore, Virtual Schooling

This study used qualitative research methods to explore English language teachers’ perceptions about the use of
technology for language learning at Northern Border University (NBU) in Saudi Arabia. Data collection relied
on interviews. Stream of behaviour chronicles was also used as a strategy of non interactive data collection.14
non native English language instructors from Northern Border University participated in this study. Instructors
identified three areas (a) availability of technology, (b) training to use technology, and (c) to overcome technical
obstacles to use technology in classrooms. They were also determined to use technology for language teaching
in the future. Implications of these findings for learners and educators are discussed.

- by Nadeem Saqlain and +1
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- Rural Development, Virtual Schooling, Rural education, TESL/TEFL

Many involved with the practice or study of K-12 online and blended learning are familiar with the American context. It surrounds us in the media and published research. However, online and blended learning is occurring in meaningful ways to address specific K-12 student needs all around the globe. There are several areas where the international practice is consistent with what we know about the United States (e.g., similar evolutions, early initiatives were government-funded, many of the labels are similar). At the same time, there are some key differences internationally (e.g., the prevalence of legacy forms of distance education, a lack of online learning below the secondary level, and blended learning being seen as a form of technology integration). While far less is known about K-12 online and blended learning in international contexts, programs in these jurisdictions are just as keen to tell their own success stories and undertake cyclic research to improve the design, delivery and facilitation of their programs.

- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning, K-12 online learning;
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Rural education, K-12 Online Learning

Online learning at the K-12 level is growing exponentially. Students learning in supplemental virtual schools and full-time cyber schools, using a variety of delivery models that include and sometimes combine independent, asynchronous, and synchronous instruction, in almost every state in the US. In some instances the knowledge, skills, and abilities required by teachers in this technology-mediated environment is consistent with what they learned about face-to-face teaching in their teacher education programs, while in many instances, the two are quite different. Presently the lack of empirical research into effective K-12 online teaching limits teacher education programs. However, teacher education programs still need to better prepare pre-service and in-service teachers to design, deliver, and support students engaged virtual schooling

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning
- by Kimhok Taing
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- Education, Virtual Schooling, Problem-Posing Pedagogy, ITC and education

Virtual schooling was first employed in the mid-1990s and has become a common method of distance education used in K-12 jurisdictions. The most accepted definition of a virtual school is an entity approved by a state or governing body that offers courses through distance delivery – most commonly using the Internet. While virtual schools can be classified in different ways, the three common methods of delivery are by independent, asynchronous or synchronous means. Presently, the vast majority of virtual school students tended to be a select group of academically capable, motivated, independent learners. The benefits associated with virtual schooling are expanding educational access, providing high-quality learning opportunities, improving student outcomes and skills, allowing for educational choice, and achieving administrative efficiency. However, the research to support these conjectures is limited at best. The challenges associated with virtual schooling include the conclusion that the only students typically successful in online learning environments are those who have independent orientations towards learning, highly motivated by intrinsic sources, and have strong time management, literacy, and technology skills. These characteristics are typically associated with adult learners. This stems from the fact that research into and practice of distance education has typically been targeted to adult learners. The problem with this focus is that adults learn differently than younger learners. Researchers are calling for more research into the factors that account for K-12 student success in distance education and virtual school environments and more design research approaches than traditional comparisons of student achievement in traditional and virtual schools.

- by Thomas C Reeves and +1
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning
- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Canada, K-12 Online Learning
- by kathy gillan
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- Distance Education, Virtual Schooling, Online Learning, Distance Learning
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

This paper presents the results of an inductive, interpretive analysis of the perspectives of 42 Canadian high school distance education (DE) teachers on asynchronous and synchronous online teaching. The paper includes a conceptual overview of the affordances and constraints of each form of teaching. Findings provided insight into the following aspects of asynchronous and synchronous online teaching: degree of use; the tools used; the contexts in which each occur; students' preferences; and limitations. Pedagogy emerged as more important than media for both asynchronous and synchronous online teaching. Synchronous online teaching relied on teacher- rather than student-centred approaches. Asynchronous online teaching provided support for self-paced, highly independent forms of secondary DE supplemented by synchronous online teaching for answering questions and troubleshooting.

- by Michael Barbour and +1
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

The literature related to online learning programs for K-12 students dates to the mid-1990s and builds upon a century of research and practice from K-12 distance education. While K-12 online learning programs have evolved and grown over the past decade, the amount of published research on virtual schooling practice and policy is limited. The current literature includes practitioner reports and experimental and quasi-experimental studies, both published and unpublished. This paper reviews open access literature in K-12 online learning and reports on a structured content analysis of the documents. Themes in the literature include steady growth and a focus on the benefits, challenges, and broad effectiveness of K-12 online learning. In addition, newly developed standards for K-12 online learning are emerging in descriptions of effective practices.

- by Michael Barbour and +1
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

While the use of distance and online learning at the K-12 level of growing exponentially, the availability of empirical evidence to help guide this growth is severely lacking. The author of this chapter provides an overview of the nature of K-12 distance and online learning today and a critical examination of the literature and – lack of research – supporting its use. The author further describes some of the methodological issues surround the limited among of existing research, and calls for researchers in this field to adopt practices that have been employed by their colleagues investigating adult populations over the past decades.

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

Educators have been quick to spot the enormous potential afforded by virtual worlds for situated and authentic learning, practising tasks with potentially serious consequences in the real world and for bringing geographically dispersed faculty and students together in the same space (Gee, 2007; Johnson and Levine, 2008). Though this potential has largely been realised, it generally isn't without cost in terms of lack of institutional buy-in, steep learning curves for all participants, and lack of a sound theoretical framework to support learning ...

- by Jenny Grenfell
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- Communication, Education, Research Methodology, Literature
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning
- by Michael Barbour
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- Teacher Education, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

Molnar, A., Miron, G., Elgeberi, N., Barbour, M. K., Huerta, L., Shafer, S. R., Rice, J. K. (2019). Virtual schools in the U.S. 2019. Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center.

As proponents continue to make the case that virtual education can expand student choices and improve the efficiency of public education, full-time virtual schools have attracted a great deal of attention. Advocates contend that this... more

- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning, K-12 online learning;
- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

This chapter provides an overview of the state of K-12 online, blended and distance education, or e-learning, in Canada. A summary of the history of K-12 e-learning and research is provided along with enrolment, current policy and legislation. A description of programs is provided along with an overview of practitioner-based organizations and consortia that have evolved to support e-learning programs in the country. A discussion of issues in K-12 e-learning and research are included and the chapter’s conclusion calls for more research and sharing of innovative practices emerging in Canada.

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Canada, Cyber Schooling

Only weeks before the 2019 annual meeting of the American Education Research Association (AERA) was held in Toronto, Ontario, the provincial government announced a major reform of education for that province entitled Education that Works for You – Modernizing Classrooms. From an e-learning perspective the proposal called for a centralization of e-learning, a graduation requirement of four e-learning courses, and increase the class size limit for e-learning courses to 35 students. The AERA call for submissions for the 2020 meeting issued a challenge for scholars to ‘connect with organizational leaders to examine collaboratively continuing educational problems... [and] programmatically engaging with educational organizations.’ This article accepts that challenge and describes a collaboration between scholars and a pan-Canadian organization to examine the research behind each of these proposed e-learning changes.

- by Michael Barbour
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- Virtual Schooling, Education Policy, Canada, Cyber Schooling

In 2011, the International Association for K-12 Online Learning released the second iteration of the National Standards for Quality Online Courses. These standards have been used by numerous institutions and states around the country to help design and create K-12 online courses. However, there has been no reported research on the validity of the standards or the accompanying rubric. This study compares all elements under the five main standards to contemporary K-12 or higher education online course literature. The research concludes with suggested changes and additions, as well as an explanation as to how the research connects to a larger study on K-12 online course design.

- by David Adelstein and +1
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- Virtual Schooling, Online Course Design, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

While the use of distance and online learning had been used for over a century in the K-12 setting (including in isolated ways during previous pandemics and natural disasters), the complete worldwide closure of schools focused attention on the use of distance and online tools and content to provide continuity of learning in a remote context. The way in which both practitioners and scholars make sense of what has occurred over the past 18 months, and what is likely to continue into the future, will impact both regular schooling and how we prepare for future crisis. This article explores this pandemic pedagogy, with a goal of situating the events since March 2020 within the broader field and providing guidance on a path forward.

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning

The community of K–12 education has seen explosive growth over the last decade in distance
learning programs, defined as learning experiences in which students and instructors are
separated by space and/or time. While elementary and secondary students have learned through
the use of electronic distance learning systems since the 1930s, the development of online
distance learning schools is a relatively new phenomenon. Online virtual schools may be ideally
suited to meet the needs of stakeholders calling for school choice, high school reform, and
workforce preparation in 21st century skills. The growth in the numbers of students learning
online and the importance of online learning as a solution to educational challenges has increased
the need to study more closely the factors that effect student learning in virtual schooling
environments. This meta-analysis is a statistical review of 116 effect sizes from 14 webdelivered
K–12 distance education programs studied between 1999 and 2004. The analysis
shows that distance education can have the same effect on measures of student academic
achievement when compared to traditional instruction. The study-weighted mean effect size
across all outcomes was -0.028 with a 95 percent confidence interval from 0.060 to -0.116,
indicating no significant difference in performance between students who participated in online
programs and those who were taught in face-to-face classrooms. No factors were found to be
related to significant positive or negative effects. The factors that were tested included academic
content area, grade level of the students, role of the distance learning program, role of the
instructor, length of the program, type of school, frequency of the distance learning experience,
pacing of instruction, timing of instruction, instructor preparation and experience in distance
education, and the setting of the students.

- by Cathy Cavanaugh
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- Virtual Schooling

Molnar, A. (Ed.), Miron, G., Barbour, M.K., Huerta, L., Shafer, S.R., Rice, J.K., Glover, A., Browning, N., Hagle, S., & Boninger, F. (2021). Virtual schools in the U.S. 2021. Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center.

The COVID-19 pandemic has pushed virtual schooling to the forefront of the national educational landscape. Long-time proponents of this technology quickly positioned digital programs and platforms as the obvious solution for schools that... more

- by Michael Barbour
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- K-12 Distance Learning, Virtual Schooling, Cyber Schooling, K-12 Online Learning
- by Nadeem Saqlain
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- Rural Development, Virtual Schooling, Rural education, TESL/TEFL