19th Century Prussia/Germany Research Papers (original) (raw)

Clausewitz è celeberrimo per la sua opera Vom Kriege (Della Guerra), unanimemente considerato uno dei classici imprescindibili dell'arte militare, ma pochi sanno che il Vom Kriege raccoglie solo i primi tre volumi dei lavori incompiuti del generale prussiano (Hinterlassene Werke über Krieg und Kriegführung), gli altri, secondo il principio, caro all'autore, che gli historische Beispiele machen Alles klar (gli esempi storici rendono tutto chiaro), essendone il complemento ed il sussidio. Infatti, nei volumi successivi, il riferimento corre continuamente alle enunciazioni dei primi tre volumi, per dimostrarne la validità e discutere i rischi della mancata applicazione dei princìpi, talvolta per emendarli, migliorarli ed adattarli alle situazioni specifiche, senza in ogni caso mai discostarsene. Questa opera, il primo dei restanti volumi, il quarto in generale, dunque non è solo il resoconto talvolta impietoso degli accadimenti militari e politici, ma una dettagliata ed acuta analisi dei processi decisionali e delle opzioni tattiche, degli errori e delle scelte corrette di entrambi i contendenti della prima Campagna d'Italia (1796-97). È anche un riconoscimento, spesso intriso di spunti polemici e malcelato odio, delle capacità del giovane generale Bonaparte, che al suo primo comando indipendente, trasformò un esercito di straccioni, indisciplinati e demotivati, privi di vestiario, vettovaglie e armamento, in un formidabile strumento di guerra, che non solo inflisse continue e ripetute sconfitte a due eserciti alleati, ma impose trattati di pace - qui riprodotti - con pesanti condizioni in termini economici, politici e territoriali a tutti gli altri stati italiani, cancellandone persino uno dalla mappa geografica. Nomi come Montenotte, Millesimo, Dego, Lodi, Lonato, Castiglione, Rovereto, Bassano, La Favorita, San Giorgio, Arcole, Rivoli, Mantova, non furono altro che le principali tappe di una delle campagne più decisive della storia e sancirono il mito di Napoleone come generale abilissimo, fortunato ed invincibile e l'inizio della sua parabola stupefacente, mossa da un'ambizione senza più limiti che portò guerra e distruzione, ma anche il fuoco inestinguibile dei valori rivoluzionari, in tutta l'Europa nel corso dei successivi vent'anni. In appendice, ad opera del curatore, una esaustiva cronologia, dieci ordini di battaglia, un dizionario dei principali protagonisti della campagna, una raccolta di trattati e armistizi, una corposa bibliografia.

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- Military History, Strategy (Military Science), Austria (European History), French History

Autor podejmuje próbę udowodnienia tezy, że kwestie narodowe na Dolnym i Górnym Śląsku w istotny sposób znalazły swój początek w dobie wojen napoleońskich. Podczas gdy w 1807 górnośląscy autochtoni zachowywali się wobec pruskich Hohenzollernów lojalnie, to w tym samym czasie na Dolnym Śląsku wojska w barwach napoleońskich witano entuzjastycznie. W 1813 na Dolnym Śląsku nastroje się zmieniły, a pruskim elitom udało się tę niechęć przekuć w zupełnie na tej ziemi nowy, pruski narodowy entuzjazm. Wojny napoleońskie stały się wręcz mitem założycielskim krystalizującej się niemieckiej świadomości narodowej. Na Górnym Śląsku wypadki potoczyły się dokładnie w odwrotnym kierunku. W 1811 roku wybuchło tu powstanie przeciwko panującym socjalnym niesprawiedliwościom. Zostało krwawo stłumione przez wojska pruskie, co wywołało głęboką nienawiść do Hohenzollernów. Rebelia ta stała się fundamentem napięć społecznych i narodowych w XIX wieku, które znalazły swój finał w powstaniach
śląskich 1919-1921.

Art history played an essential role in establishing the
knowledge necessary to re-thinking, re-creating and re-living the Christian origins of Prussian authority.66 While under Friedrich Wilhelm in the first half of the nineteenth century, art served the higher purpose of religion, the situation had changed by the end of the century under Wilhelm II. Now religion served the State, and churches were named after emperors. The choice of style shifted
accordingly. Meanwhile, art history had continued to progress, defining different historical periods and their styles ever more accurately. Now, the Romanesque
was considered to be - as had been the case with Gothic architecture at the beginning of the century - German national style symbolizing the Nation's cultural greatness. The use of Early Christian models retreated to the mosaics expressing the emperor's devotion. At the end of the century, however, art historians produced not only a more complete availability of exact models and
interpretations, but contributed also to the spiritualization of all domains in art. One may ask whether this did not also contribute to its use as a vehicle for all kinds of overestimation, be it royal, national or other. By producing cultural models, however, the art historian proves to be a political agent.

- by Nicolas Bock
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- Art History, Social History of Art, 19th Century Prussia/Germany

Nikolas Dörr, 165 Jahre Einschränkung der Kinderarbeit in Preußen. Ein Beitrag zum Beginn der Sozialgesetzgebung in Deutschland, in: MenschenRechtsMagazin (hrsg. vom Menschenrechtszentrum der Universität Potsdam), 9. Jahrgang, Nr. 2/2004,... more

- by Nikolas Dörr
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- Military History, German History, Child protection, Welfare State

The subject of this article is the Wild & Wessel factory in Berlin, one of the foremost producers of kerosene lamps in Europe in the second half of the nineteenth century. The success of this factory was due in large part to its founding directors’ dual emphasis on art and technology: they hired well-known and respected contemporary artists to design and prototype their lamps, and spent large sums on research and development. This, and their emphasis on catering to an inclusive market with a range of low to high price points, on thoughtful merchandising and branding, and on streamlining production, put Emil Wild and Wilhelm Wessel in the footprint of Josiah Wedgwood, often seen as the pioneer of entrepreneurship.

- by CAL Tarih
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- German Studies, Mongolian Studies, History of Plague, World War II
- by Paige Foley
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- History, Military History, Diplomacy, World War I
- by Rafał Kubicki
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- History of Prussia, 19th Century Prussia/Germany, Dominicans, Prussian History

A strand of recent German historiography on the kingdom of Westphalia emphasizes the discrepancy between Napoleon’s reformist ambitions and the actual results of his rule. This school of thought argues that Napoleon’s continued fiscal and military exploitation of the territory discredited the newly-created state, provoking a widespread rejection of the regime and its administration. Moreover, the argument goes, only a small section of the population was ever prepared to cooperate with the French.
In fact, public opinion varied widely within the kingdom and across different social levels in its views of the new state. The relatively poor experience of French rule in Hesse-Cassel with its capital, on which historians have focused much of their attention, should not be generalized for the kingdom as a whole. Involvement of the wider population in administrative processes by public monitoring of the administrators proved far more effective than it is often acknowledged.
Based on many years of research in German, French and Russian archives, this chapter attempts to give a more nuanced view of this kingdom organized as it was at a decisive moment in the construction of the modern bureaucratic state.

In diesem Aufsatz ist von zwei der bedeutendsten und engsten persönlichen und politischen Freunde Otto von Bismarcks die Rede. Im Jahr 1873 schied der enge Freund Bismarcks, Albrecht von Roon, aus seinem Amt als preußischer Kriegsminister aus. Dieses Ereignis bildete eine von vielen Etappen des sich über mehrere Jahre anbahnenden und hinziehenden "Bruches der preußischen Konservativen" mit Bismarck, eines Bruches, der im Jahr 1875 dann manifest werden sollte. In diesem Aufsatz geht es um die inhaltliche Erläuterung eines Briefes, den Bismarck 1873 an seinen Freund Roon gerichtet hat. Der Brief enthält eine Fülle von Anspielungen auf historische Ereignisse und Personen. Diese werden - wenigstens zum Teil - erläutert. Vor allem aber wird die Aufmerksamkeit auf die persönliche Stimmung und Lage gerichtet, aus der heraus Bismarck diesen Brief zu schreiben veranlaßt war. Bismarck erklärte noch Jahre später: "Das ununterbrochene Bewußtsein der Verantwortlichkeit für große Ereignisse, bei denen die Zukunft des Vaterlandes auf dem Spiele stand" wäre ihm erleichtert worden durch den "Verkehr mit anderen, die man für gleichgestellt hält". Wenn aber ein Verantwortung Tragender in einer solchen Stellung wie der seinen "mit sich und seinen Erwägungen vereinsamt wird, so muß das den Eingriff (der) amtlichen Sorgen in seine Nerven und seine Gesundheit verschärfen". Es wird ein sehr menschlicher Zug auf Seiten des Politikers Bismarck herausgearbeitet: Die Bedeutung der Freundschaft für sein Leben und für die Geschichte-Gestaltung Deutschlands und Europas.

The famous codification controversy of 1814 between Carl von Savigny and Anton Thibaut has been a turning point in the history of European legal culture. Starting form this remarkable and very passionate debate it is my intention to examine Savigny’s Beruf unserer Zeit für Gesetzgebung, stressing the importance of space and time in his thought. Even today it is a perspective that is very inspiring, being an excellent opportunity to think about the present. Moreover this brilliant pamphlet has raised the most important question of the relationship between the State, its constitution and its territory. In the following years, the issue of how political institutions are rooted in space has been crucial and still echoes in the debate about globalization.

The nature of German foreign policy changed dramatically from 1871 to 1991, with approaches ranging from the Realpolitik of Otto von Bismarck to the Weltpolitik of Kaiser Wilhelm II; from the Lebensraum of Hitler to the Ostpolitik of Willy Brandt. Whilst foreign policy changed with different leaders, in the wider historical context, historians continue to dispute the reasons and causes behind Germany’s different foreign policies. For example, some historians believe the economy was the main factor in shaping foreign policy, arguing that Wilhelm II’s Weltpolitik existed only for the purposes of economic colonialism. Moreover, there is the argument that an unstable economy caused by Nazi rearmament policies forced a “flight into war”, and the differences in East and West German foreign policy was caused by economic ideological differences, enforced in practice through the Marshall Plan. In contrast, other historians point to recurring themes throughout history as the main factors behind foreign policy. For example, these historians argue nationalism was primarily responsible for the outbreak of the First World War, whilst fascist expansionism formed the backbone of Nazi foreign policy. Additionally, there is the argument that the foreign policies of East and West Germany were influenced greatly by other nations, meaning one can question the extent to which such policies were truly “German”, or instead the work of NATO or the Warsaw Pact. To thematically consider the influence of the economy, the interpretations of Timothy Mason and Richard Overy can be contrasted, alongside a range of primary sources and other historians’ views. Ultimately, the economic state of Germany was the main influence on their foreign policy in the years 1871-1991, due to its thematic omnipresence throughout various periods of history, a view which is supported by numerous historians.

- by Cameron Hardie
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- History, Economic History, Cold War, 19th Century Prussia/Germany

Quatre ans de recherches palpitantes pour faire revivre Enghien depuis la fin de la période autrichienne jusqu'en 1815. Découvrons ensemble le duc Louis-Engelbert d'Arenberg, seigneur d'Enghien, aveugle à 20 ans, spolié de ses avoirs en Germanie lors de la Confédération du Rhin et finalement, nommé sénateur impérial par Napoléon. Pourquoi est-il devenu franc-maçon et comment la franc-maçonnerie s'est-elle établie dans nos régions au XVIIIe siècle ? Que dire du fils du duc, le prince Prosper-Louis qui leva le régiment des chevau-légers du duc d'Arenberg à l'origine du 27e régiment belge des chasseurs à cheval ? Le canton d'Enghien, pris dans les serres de l'Aigle impérial, livra 475 conscrits qui, intégrés dans la Grande Armée, se sacrifièrent aux quatre coins de l'Europe.

The organ is one of the most important elements of the church furnishings. The Kwidzyn Cathedral was one of the first in Prussia to have such an instrument. Over the next centuries, the organs in this church were subject to renovation or replacement. Today they are clearly associated with Wilhelm Sauer, organ builder from Frankfurt (Oder), performer of the famous instrument from 1864. The organ in the cathedral of St. John the Evangelist is not new, it has been studied by several organologists, including the author of this article. Despite the completion of these works, this issue still requires a lot of research. The article is therefore an attempt to collect the existing ones, juxtaposed with new archival discoveries.

- by Bartosz Skop
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- History, Church Music, Musicology, Art History

Long, straight and wide streets, lined continuously with four to five storeyed blocks of flats, most of them enriched with substantial decoration, while at the back this stateliness usually turns into its opposite, into relative darkness and an utilitarian look: Everybody knows this as the urbanistic and architectural contribution of the later 19th century, present in virtually all Central European, in fact in practically all Continental European towns. Substantial research has been devoted to some major cities in the German-speaking lands, such as Vienna and Berlin, but what is still badly lacking is a knowledge of most other towns, and thus a comparative overview so far appears a near-impossibility. Based to some extent on what is known about Berlin, this article begins, in very summary fashion, with sketching out the major factors that helped the large Mietshaus block to develop from around the middle of the 19th century onwards, in terms of the history of architectural design as well as in terms of new town planning policies. It then attempts to outline the major characteristics of the Mietshaus in a number of cities, regarding the modes of their decoration, the types of plans of the flats and especially the size of the spaces at the back of the blocks. Of major significance was the way in which the planning and the architectural design of the streets and the blocks corresponded with the stratification of social classes. Many cities witnessed attempts on the part of the state and municipal authorities to keep classes apart, to contain them in their respective districts. Architectural splendour was to remain the preserve of, the sign of social superiority, while the contemporary dwellings of the lesser classes had to show restraint. The last part of the article turns again to the blocks of Berlin. In comparison with many other cities they reveal a maximal use of the ground, resulting in the notoriously narrow back yards. This was tied in with another phenomenon, the co-presence of the lower and lowest classes with the middle and even the ‘better’ classes within each district and even within each block. Berlin refrained from building districts that could be labelled specifically ‘working class’. The result was that architectural splendour could be, and was applied to all new dwellings in all parts of the city. The Berlin Mietshaus thereby became the subject of social-reformist discourses; However, the positive evaluation of the ‘proximity of the classes’ of the 1860s turned to a totally negative one by the 1890s, deploring the conditions of the poorest inhabitants in all dwellings. It rapidly resulted in the condemnation of the large Mietshaus type as a whole, now being ridiculed as the ‘Mietskaserne’. Soon after 1900 this dense type of urban dwelling was totally abolished.

Diese schriftliche Hausarbeit zum 1. Kirchlichen Examen beschreibt die Entwicklung des Vereinsluthertums in Preußen von 1846 bis 1853 und das Verhältnis konfessionell-lutherischer Pfarrer innerhalb der Union zu Pfarrern der... more

- by Felix R Hammer
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- Lutheranism, Church History, 19th Century Prussia/Germany, Unionism

Descripción y tipificación del contexto económico, política y cultural-ideológico imperante en Alemania en el periodo que va de 1890 a 1910. Contexto en el que surge la Teoría Psicológica de la Gestalt. El propósito principal es el explorar estos contextos, a la luz de citas textuales obtenidas de textos especializados, para determinar en ellos la tendencia sociológica imperante, en sentido de lógica o modo específico de organizar las esferas de lo cultural, ideológico, económico y político. Presuponemos la prevalencia en el conjunto contextual de una tendencia que hemos nombrado totalista, sobre otras tendencias denominadas unitaria, totalitaria y global, respectivamente. Finalmente, encontramos que se observa una mayor aparición de la tendencia unitaria, como rasgo sociológico organizador del contexto alemán visto en conjunto. Descubrimiento que podría ser utilizado como punto de partida para un ulterior trabajo e el cual se indagaría la relación del hecho anterior con la epistemología específica de la Teoría Psicológica de la Gestalt.

- by Wolfgang Loehlein
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- History, Archaeology, History of Archeology, 19th Century Prussia/Germany

In this essay, I lay out an argument about the scholarship on the emergent rationality of files. Looking at the case of Heinrich Otto Meisner’s groundbreaking modern diplomatics of files and the conditions and possibilities that shaped the argument of his work both practically and politically, I suggest a model for the analysis of bureaucratic mediocracy in historical perspective.
I understand Meisner’s observations of everyday life through the lense of bureaucratic logic as ethnography avant la lettre. After introducing Meisner and his pioneering work on the modern diplomatics of files, I give a close reading of his own private copy of the Aktenkunde that he first published in 1935; I show that the way he organized information followed the very symbolic and material logic of bureaucratic administration he set out to describe, acknowledging the basic concepts, such as the »principle of provenance«, which he defined and discussed throughout his book.
The historically contingent logics of archival administration and everyday life are incommensurable. Each is a relatively closed, but scattered terrain with its own emergent and internal logic. In that sense they can be considered black boxes within a model of double contingency. As it becomes clear with the case at hand, these relatively autonomous spheres are not separated from the politics inside and outside the archive. Examining the everydayness of state institutions, and intellectual and administrative practices, as well as the forms of paperwork that keeps them going, allows for a new perspective on the history of bureaucracy. Ultimately, I argue for an historical anthropology that acknowledges the epistemic violence and politics of inclusion and exclusion in bureaucracy in order to arrive at an historical anthropology of reason that does not deny, but instead attempts to think through its unequal terms.

- by Mario Wimmer
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- European History, Historical Anthropology, Systems Theory, Diplomatics

In 1807 French troops demolished fortifications of Wrocław. This paper presents the ideas and designs for the rebuilding of this fortress from the period 1807-1830. In designing process participated following Prussian officers: Grawert, Rode, Pullet, Harroy, Boyen, Grolman, Liebenroth, and Schubert. The only today existing remains of this forgotten period of fortress Wrocław is the new city moat with a promenade, built after 1807.

- by Vittorio Scotti Douglas
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- European History, Diplomatic History, European Studies, French History

The research that has been done on royalty in general is massive. And, the connections between royal lines once revealed can be amazing, as they will sometimes reveal connections that a) were not supposed to have existed, and even b) that actually contradict the information that was given to the general public by those very royals. This paper gives two different lines of descent of Kaiser Wilhelm II, from Arrius Calpurnius Piso. One is through Arrius Piso's son Justus Piso. And the second line of descent is via Arrius Piso's son Julius Piso. Now, even though these two lines are given here, it should be understood that in reality, these are but two of many extant genealogies extending from Arrius Piso and his family to Kaiser Wilhelm. I plan to write yet another paper giving some of the other lines as well. There are several things that I have noticed as I have researched and studied ancient history and genealogies; things that should provide any good (or with time, potentially great) researcher with valuable information. And, as in my case, perhaps answers to many very important questions, as well as a few epic discoveries. When I began to investigate fully, and with the time and attention required, ancient history and information given within those histories, with regards to particular individuals, I found that certain things appeared to be 'standard' with all of those ancient authors-and those things stood out to me, and appeared to have been missed by other researchers, as I had never seen those certain things ever being noted or mentioned in the work of other researchers. For one thing, I had noted that in the work of one ancient author after another, there were so many instances where those authors could have very easily gave answers and information in a direct and forthright manner; but deliberately chose not to. And, more often than not, avoided very skillfully, giving key information about certain individuals; mainly and particularly, the authors themselves. Also, those authors would make statements which either promised to give answers and/or further information about a particular subject, and then failed to do so. At least, in any known or public work. Now, some researchers have tried to answer this by giving excuses for some of those instances. But, in essence, those explanations or excuses are really simply guesses. And poor ones at that. My work has given some genuine answers. And the true context of the material that was being written and left to future generations by those ancient authors is key to getting at the truth and in finding valid answers to these and other questions. One of the main things to realize is that ancient history (and other material being produced by those authors), was being written within a tightly controlled environment. And that changes the context in which we must now examine that material in order to understand it correctly. It also means that because of this set of circumstances, other things were in play as well. And, one of those is the fact that the authors who were leaving us their works were in fact, all royalty. Which, in turn, means that these authors were related to each other and had the same common ancestry. It also, therefore, means that they had the same or similar vested interests. Because only royals or those of royal blood, were able to write for publication, it meant that what they

- by Roman Piso
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- Religion, Christianity, History, Ancient History
- by Tess McCann
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- Military History, Biography, Napoleonic Wars, 19th Century Prussia/Germany

From 1877 to 1882, prompted by card. Gustav von Hohenlohe, some
Rosminians set up a foundation in Schillingsfürst (Bavaria) in order to settle permanently and get the curacy of the local parish. Difficulties of language, false friends, incomprehension, the hostile policy of the government and everyday misadventures lead quickly to drop the project, but a tiny seed will grow up later. By the means of unexplored archival sources, the present essay offers an insight of the Rosminian adventure in Bavaria, of the personality of card. Hohenlohe who wanted it, of the reasons of its failure and of the daily life of the small community, who tried to spread in Germany the names of Rosmini and of his Institute.
(The essay is part of: ROSMINIANESIMO FILOSOFICO, anno II, 2018, edited by S. F. TADINI)

Mural crown in the municipal coat of arms in the Kingdom of Prussia in the light
of official heraldic regulations (until 1918).
The aim of the article is to depict the genesis of the mural crown as one of the elements of municipal coats of arms in the Kingdom of Prussia, which before 1945 included a large part of the present western and northern territories of the Republic of Poland. The article attempts to show how the element imposed in the Kingdom of Prussia after the defeat in the war with Napoleon Bonaparte became one of the desirable signs used in the coats of arms of Prussian cities to emphasize their status. The analysis was carried on the basis of the files preserved in the Prussian Home Office concerning the issues of municipal heraldry and sphragistics in the Kingdom of Prussia.

- by Agnieszka Gut
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- Heraldry, 19th Century Prussia/Germany, Pomerania, Municipal Heraldry

City called Rastenburg - exhibition brochure. Exhibiton presented on the occasion of the 660th anniversary of granting city rights to Rastenburg (today Kętrzyn).

The article discusses the history of the construction and functioning of organs in the parish church of St. Jakub in Olsztyn, where in 1898-1900 worked the outstanding Polish composer Feliks Nowowiejski. It is about the main organ of Max Terletzki from 1879 and a small organ from 1891. The history of the organ in this church has been discussed up to the present day. To this day, of the two mentioned instruments, small organs have been preserved - an outstanding work of 19th-century organ construction and a new great instrument from 2008.

- by Bartosz Skop
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- History, Music, Music Industry, Organ (pipe)

The concept of the civilizing mission has been generally associated with a justification of Western colonialism. The main premise of the civilizing mission lies in the conviction that improving the world depends on including as many non-Europeans as possible in the achievements of the so-called superior “Western civilization.” My goal is to show how the concept of the civilizing mission – once used in the colonial politics of Western empires – was transferred in various ways to another geographical area, namely in East-Central Europe: both as an intellectual idea and as a tool for legitimizing political power. I will demonstrate various strategies through which members of the German, Polish, and Ukrainian intelligentsia transferred, appropriated, contested and internalized the civilizing missions directed towards them by other European empires. East-Central European “enlightened” elites developed a hierarchy of inferiority and superiority in relation to the West; accordingly, Eastern Europe became a single unit only in the eyes of Westerners.

- by Ela Kwiecinska
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- Intellectual History, Cultural History, Eastern European Studies, Polish History

The compositional oeuvre of Otto Nicolai (1810–1849) is doubtless overshad- owed by his last opera, The Merry Wives of Windsor. Yet his original training had been in the field of church music and he composed a wide range of sacred music. Despite the central place these compositions occupy in his output, until now they have only sporadically received musicological attention. The present work aims to close this gap and, for the first time, to survey and describe the entire body of sacred works finished by the composer before his untimely death. While the focus will be on the genesis and reception of individual compositions, analytical aspects will also be investigated. In order to place Nicolai’s work in a firm historical context, his musical influences and his own stylistic traits will be explored as well. On the basis of recently discovered sources, some bi- ographical details will also be examined, in part to correct previous, incorrect assumptions about his biography. Nicolai’s letters are a vital source of infor- mation about his life and work; therefore an updated catalog of his letters is appended to this study. In addition, more than twenty letters are reproduced here, including previously unknown letters to two Prussian Kings, Friedrich Wilhelm III and Friedrich Wilhelm IV.

Vexillological study of Schleswig-Holstein flags during the time as Prussian province (1864-1933/1946).

- by Michael Hecht
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- Environmental History, Social Movement, Vulnerability, 19th Century Prussia/Germany
- by Nina Kreibig
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- Death Studies, Fear, History Of Emotions, Liminality
- by Dino Proha
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- Military History, Italian Wars, Russian History, 19th Century Prussia/Germany

This bachelor’s thesis examines 21 statements of selected German historians from the 18th and 19th centuries in a discourse-analytical manner. It is centered around comments made about the revocation of the Edict of Nantes 1685 and its consequences. The discourse is being constructed in a very uniform manner, barring one exception. The Huguenots and the Great Elector are being described with various positive qualities. The author of this study was able to prove, that parts of German historiography surrounding the aforementioned topics were exploited to retrospectively portray Frederic Wilhelm in a positive light.

- by Roman Fässler
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- French History, Historiography, Historicism, National Identity