Remote Sensing (Archaeology) Research Papers (original) (raw)

SUMMARY: Chapter 3, in Renfrew & Bahn's textbook (Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice), covers many approaches to looking for and finding sites, and archaeological remains within sites, such as historical and local reports, ground reconnaissance (e.g., walking surveys; sampling strategies), aerial surveys (e.g., LiDAR; crop marks), satellite remote sensing, recording & mapping (e.g., GIS), subsurface detection (e.g., probes), ground-based remote sensing (seismic; acoustic; electromagnetic; magnetic; etc.), excavation techniques, underwater archaeology, and processing & classification. In my view, this is one of the best college textbooks available, and is invaluable for students, archaeologists, and the public in general, to obtain a top notch overview of approaching and interpreting the archaeological record. REVISED: Jan. 2023.

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- Ancient History, Archaeology, Anthropology, Geoarchaeology

Bodie’s iconic buildings are showing signs of stress due to age and harsh weather conditions. Drought has exacerbated the sustainability and resilience of Bodie accelerating the degradation of its historic fabric and cultural landscape. Parks and UC Merced are working on a multi-year project to preserve Bodie by capturing digital data using terrestrial laser scanning and 3D mapping obtained by close-range airborne and ground photography, generating ultra-precise measurements and 3D models of its structures that may be used for future conservation efforts or physical reconstruction of the site. Adequate documentation will allow us to efficiently obtain information on the buildings including construction techniques, materials used, geometry, interior design elements and state of decay. This paper will present our early findings and evaluate current strategies to improve future work.

Knowledge of underwater topography is essential to the understanding of the organisation and distribution of archaeological sites along and in water bodies. Special attention has to be paid to intertidal and inshore zones where, due to sea-level rise, coastlines have changed and many former coastal sites are now submerged in shallow water. Mapping the detailed inshore topography is therefore important to reconstruct former coastlines, identify sunken archaeological structures and locate potential former harbour sites. However, until recently archaeology has lacked suitable methods to provide the required topographical data of shallow underwater bodies. Our research shows that airborne topo-bathymetric laser scanner systems are able to measure surfaces above and below the water table over large areas in high detail using very short and narrow green laser pulses, even revealing sunken archaeological structures in shallow water. Using an airborne laser scanner operating at a wavelength in the green visible spectrum (532 nm) two case study areas in different environmental settings (Kolone, Croatia, with clear sea water; Lake Keutschach, Austria, with turbid water) were scanned. In both cases, a digital model of the underwater topography with a planimetric resolution of a few decimeters was measured. While in the clear waters of Kolone penetration depth was up to 11 meters, turbid Lake Keutschach allowed only to document the upper 1.6 meters of its underwater topography. Our results demonstrate the potential of this technique to map submerged archaeological structures over large areas in high detail providing the possibility for systematic, large scale archaeological investigation of this environment.

- by Nives Doneus and +3
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- Remote Sensing, LiDAR, Airborne Laser Scanning, Bathymetry Survey
- by BRUNO MARCOLONGO
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- Geomorphology, Landscape Archaeology, Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

In examining the precursors of social complexity, especially in the Near and Middle East, consideration of riparian, lacustrine, estuarine, and riparian (littoral) resource exploitation for the most part has been subordinated to close examination of agro-pastoral economic components characterized by grain cultivation and ungulate husbandry. However, use and administration of marshland resources was not a mere addendum to a better-studied agropastoral irrigation economy. Its managerial origins in Chalcolithic hydrostrategies were a priori dependent upon a littoral landscape that endured in various forms for seven millennia.

Full text available at https://doi.org/10.34780/faak.v2i0.1000 -
The Geoglyphs of Palpa, Peru is a revision of the author´s Ph.D. thesis. In this study, the famed geoglyphs of the Paracas and Nasca cultures on the south coast of Peru are investigated in order to better understand their function and meaning. Combining aerial photogrammetry, archaeological fieldwork, and GIS-based analysis, more than 600 geoglyphs in the vicinity of the modern town of Palpa were recorded and analyzed. This interdisciplinary approach enabled the establishment of the first digital archive of these prehispanic monuments. It also led to important new insights into the origin, development, and spatial context of the geoglyphs. The Palpa dataset was furthermore used to test a recent model that explains the function and meaning of the Nasca geoglyphs in terms of Andean social, cultural, and religious traditions. The results of this study indicate that the ancient activities which took place on the geoglyphs revolved around concepts of water and fertility, and were a means of expressing social status and cultural concepts. The geoglyphs integrated the desert into the cultural landscape of the valley-based Paracas and Nasca societies, and were thus a valuable cultural resource that can still be appreciated today.

- by Karsten Lambers
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- Photogrammetry, Andean Archaeology, Aerial Archaeology, Landscape Archaeology
- by Ioana Oltean and +1
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- Remote Sensing, Landscape Archaeology, Archaeological GIS, Roman military archaeology

The Medieval Wall System of China and Mongolia is one of the longest wall systems in the world, but its specific chronology, function, and purpose remain ambiguous. Constructed at various points throughout the 10th to 13th centuries CE, this network of walls, forts, and enclosures covers an estimated 4000 km and spans a wide range of ecozones, from the deserts of western China to the steppes of northern Mongolia and the Khingan mountain range. In this article we used historical atlases, topographic maps, and an array of different kinds of data derived from satellite remote sensing, to produce one of the first accurate maps of the Medieval Wall System. Through this large-scale mapping program, we are now able to evaluate previous work that estimates the length of the wall system and different areas of construction. By measuring the structures associated with the wall and the length of the wall itself, we identified at least three different areas of construction along the Medieval Wall System. Future studies may be able to use similar tools to develop more accurate maps of other wall systems throughout Eurasia to further advance the comparative study of ancient wall systems.

- by Gideon Shelach-Lavi and +2
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- Remote Sensing, Landscape Archaeology, Survey (Archaeological Method & Theory), Song Dynasty

In the southern part of the Brețcu Mountains, on the inner arch of the Curved Carpathians, in a place called the Fairies Fortress, there is one of the most important and, at the same time, spectacular archeological sites, representative for the final stage of the Second Iron Age, the so called Dacian period.
The present study reports a series of preliminary results regarding the evolution of the anthropic habitat in the landscape in which the fortress was built.
The identification of the local roads connecting the Fairies Fortress with the summit road which in its turn links, through the mountain’s ridges, the Black River basin (via the Covasna River) with the Comandău Depression, was the main result of the preliminary LiDAR analysis. More broadly, these local routes were just segments of the more widespread network of roads that provided connection (on ridges and / or valleys’ routes through Bâsca Mică and Bâsca Mare rivers) between SE Transylvania and the communication hubs along Buzău and Teleajen Rivers and from here further on with the routes to the extra-Carpathian and Danube space.
The morphology of the northern and southwestern ridges, highlighted by the analysis of the LiDAR data and the subsequent digital elevation models as well as the results of the magnetic investigations reveal the possibility that the area inhabited or at least exploited in the past to be much wider. In this case, the Fairies Fortress (the perimeter delimited by terraces and enclosed by stone walls) should be understood, rather, as an acropolis for an area of activity that included the entire drainage basin between the ridges from the west and the small river valley from the eastern side of the fortress.

- by Dan Stefan and +1
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- Archaeology, Remote Sensing, Landscape Archaeology, LiDAR

A first description of 32 sites, only two of which are supposed to be less than 200 years old prove Addis Ababa's medieval origin. They are regrouped in four areas, a set of principles and a priority order are spelled out for their... more

A first description of 32 sites, only two of which are supposed to be less than 200 years old prove Addis Ababa's medieval origin.
They are regrouped in four areas, a set of principles and a priority order are spelled out for their study, promotion and preservation.

Satellite remote sensing is playing an increasingly important role in the detection and documentation of archaeological sites. Surveying an area from the ground using traditional methods often presents challenges due to the time and costs involved. In contrast, the multispectral synoptic approach afforded by the satellite sensor makes it possible to cover much larger areas in greater spectral detail and more cost effectively. This is especially the case for larger scale regional surveys, which are helping to contribute to a better understanding of ancient Egyptian settlement patterns. This study presents an overview of satellite remote sensing data products, methodologies, and image processing techniques for detecting lost or undiscovered archaeological sites with reference to Egypt and the Near East. Key regions of the electromagnetic spectrum useful for site detection are discussed, including the visible near-infrared (VNIR), shortwave infrared (SWIR), thermal infrared (TIR), and microwave (radar). The potential of using Google Earth as both a data provider and a visualization tool is also examined. Finally, a case study is presented for detecting tell sites in Egypt using Landsat ETM+, ASTER, and Google Earth imagery. Results from the analysis showed that principal components analysis (PCA) was successfully able to detect and differentiate tell sites from modern settlements in Egypt’s northwestern Nile Delta region.

- by Robert K Corrie
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- Egyptology, Remote Sensing, Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

In this article, we present the most significant results of the Monte Albán Geophysical Archaeology Project. Using groundpenetrating radar, gradiometry, and electrical resistance, we carried out a systematic survey of the site's Main Plaza to identify buried prehispanic features that might shed light on Monte Albán's early history. The most important discoveries include three buried structures dating between the Danibaan (500-300 BC) and Nisa phases (100 BC-AD 100). We argue that the largest structure, measuring 18 × 18 m, was probably a temple platform and that all three of the structures were razed and buried by the end of the Nisa phase at the latest. Furthermore, we contend that these events were part of a major renovation and expansion of the site's Main Plaza that occurred during a pivotal period of dramatic sociopolitical transformation in the Zapotec capital.

- by Marc N. Levine and +2
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- Archaeology, Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR), Urbanism (Archaeology), Mesoamerican Archaeology

It is so important to be aware of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of changes for the environment, land use planning and sustainable development. Detecting the changes in the condition of an issue is done by time difference observations. Change detection refers to the process of detecting time changes of an object through different time observations. The detection of changes by satellite imageries has come recently to the focus of attention due to their comprehensive and integrated characteristics and their ability to monitor changes during long periods as well as their application to monitoring and controlling changes in the forest ecosystems. The vegetation maps are now used to generate required information for macro and micro planning. This study was done to monitor the changes in the forest of Golestan province in the past and also to investigate the possibility of its future forecast using the Land Change Modeler (LMC). A forest type map was first prepared to monitor changes in forests of Golestan province from 2000 to 2015. The images taken in 12 months during 2000 and 2015 were collected form MODIS satellite imageries to monitor the forest. After pre-processing and preparing the time series in two sections, the forest changes were considered using the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index and Moisture Stress Index (NDVI and MSI). The changes were then classified by indices, including the lands with excellent, very good, medium and poor coverage and compared together. The accuracy of the classification results was assessed using the field maps. The best result was found in the average time series data and the use of the NDVI index was prioritized over other indices. The forecast of changes by 2030 as 0.8629 Kappa and the model results for 2030 indicated a decline of 70000 in the land with high and very high capacities and a further increase in land with a low capacity.

Prevailing theories of the evolution of early complex societies in southern Mesopotamia presume a uniform, arid landscape transited by Tigris and Euphrates distributaries. These theories hold that it was the seventh millennium BCE introduction of irrigation technologies from the northern alluvium to the south that began the punctuated evolution of Mesopotamian irrigation schemes. In this view, irrigation-dependent agro-pastoral production was the primary stimulus to urbanization and, millennia later, the emergence of city-states. In this dissertation, I cast serious doubt on the landscape characterization underlying this model. I argue that much of the archaic alluvial landscape of southern Iraq consisted in large part, not of desert or steppe, but of wetlands, and that this finding requires a comprehensive reassessment of southern Mesopotamian resource management strategies and their role in emergent complex polities.

Ladies, gentlemen and distinguished guests,
My name is Murat YAKAR and I am the chair of Intercontinental Geoinformation Days. It is my honour
this morning to welcome you all.
It is a great pleasure for me to declare open the first Intercontinental Geoinformation Days and to
welcome the participants from all over the world who participated here to exchange experience and
work together for two days on field of geoinformation and their applications.
I first wish to extend to you the greetings of the Governor of Mersin Province, Metropolitan Mayor of
Mersin and the rector of Mersin University. I wish to thank them for their support.
This 2-days-long conference offers online technical sessions and workshops. The technical programme
consists of 67 presentations within the fields of surveying, remote sensing, photogrammetry, land
administration, cartography, GIS and geodesy, including best practice and new research.
As the novel coronavirus outbreak shutters businesses and disrupts everyday life for billions around
the globe, massive annual conferences and small society meetings alike have moved online. This new
format poses numerous technical and organizational challenges, but it also offers opportunities—for
reaching wider audiences, reducing the carbon footprint of meeting travel, and improving diversity
and equity.
As a way to support our research community and to advance its scholarship during the COVID-19
pandemic, we decided to waive all registration fees for the virtual conference, cover the administrative
and setup cost of hosting the conference virtually as well as the publishing and copy-editing costs of
the conference proceedings.
The Intercontinental Geoinformation Days has gotten an enthusiastic response from colleagues from
all around the World. And we are pleased with the positive response that this event has gotten dozens
of contributions from experts in the field. The number of submitted papers is more than the level we
had expected. So, I would like to thank you for your valuable contributions and kind support.
Our team is now considering to make this event traditionalized and the second IGD event is planned
to be organized in May 2021. The organization committee will publish the details of the next event in
the following months.
Before closing, I have to extend further thanks to academic staff of Mersin University Department of
Geomatics Engineering who greatly helped in organising the conference. I sincerely hope that this
conference will achieve its objectives and make great progress through wide ranging discussions.
Let me now close by wishing you a delightful and stimulating event.
Prof. Dr. Murat YAKAR

Over the past 25 years, CORONA satellite imagery has become an integral part of archaeological research, especially for arid, sparsely vegetated regions such as the Middle East. Since 2020, a new archive of satellite imagery gathered by the US spy satellite programme that succeeded CORONA—HEXAGON—has become widely available for download via the United States Geological Survey. This photographic archive has enormous potential for archaeological research. Here, the authors seek to lower the barriers to acces- sing and using this imagery by detailing the back- ground, technical specifications and history of the HEXAGON archive. Four case studies illustrate the benefits and limitations of HEXAGON imagery for archaeological and historical research in the Middle East and beyond.

- by Emily Hammer and +1
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- Landscape Archaeology, Remote sensing and GIS applications in Landscape Research, Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

Remote sensing is one of the main foundations of archaeological data, underpinning knowledge and understanding of the historic environment. The volume, arising from a symposium organised by the Europae Archaeologiae Consilium (EAC) and the Aerial Archaeology Research Group (AARG), provides up to date expert statements on the methodologies, achievements and potential of remote sensing with a particular focus on archaeological heritage management. Well-established approaches and techniques are set alongside new technologies and data-sources, with discussion covering relative merits and applicability, and the need for integrated approaches to understanding and managing the landscape. Discussions cover aerial photography, both modern and historic, LiDAR, satellite imagery, multi- and hyper-spectral data, sonar and geophysical survey, addressing both terrestrial and maritime contexts. Case studies drawn from the contrasting landscapes of Europe illustrate best practice and innovative projects.

The quintessence of U-thiopia, medieval capital Barara lies somewhere near the Gojjam pass, at the NE limit of Addis Ababa.
So the Zuqwala informants of Fra Mauro, in 1441 appear to have shown him precisely. I trusted them and some detailed, but harder to interpret satellite images to claim a real folly: Barara's high, elitist parts are found. Lower quarters can be discerned, a forge is found, the area is still loosely urbanized. So the next finds should be there, in NW Addis Ababa. Fifteen points on the map correspond reasonably to geographical reality today, and archaeological sites of standing, mostly just found. Much research due, years of soundings needed. Rapidly, as over thirty medieval sites of standing in Central Shoa are at immediate grave risk.

Remote sensing can be a helpful adjunct with its indirect look below the surface based on geophysics. In the fall of fall 2003 we put some remote sensing techniques to the test in a pilot season of the Giza geophysical survey,... more

Remote sensing can be a helpful
adjunct with its indirect look below the
surface based on geophysics. In the fall of fall
2003 we put some remote sensing techniques to
the test in a pilot season of the Giza geophysical
survey, sponsored by the National
Geographical Society.

- by Glen Dash
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- Egyptology, Remote Sensing (Archaeology), Giza, George Reisner

Photogrammetry is a cost-effective and versatile technique used for the threedimensional (3D) registration of archaeological heritage sites. Managing datasets of heterogeneous images in terms of camera type, elevation platform, position or acquisition time can now be addressed by structure from motion (SfM)
software via bundle adjustment in a single block based on collinearity principles. This development enables new possibilities with regard to data completeness assurance for 3D documentation, even for complex sites with occlusive elements and hidden areas. However, hybrid photogrammetry in large datasets often requires multiple photogrammetric blocks that must be processed individually and subsequently aligned to obtain a unified point cloud. In this paper, we discuss the steps required to homogenize the information and the methods used to perform block alignment in these cases. A case study of low-altitude aerial photogrammetry with several cameras and platforms is presented for the Roman camp of A Cidadela in NW Spain as a representative example of an archaeological site that is difficult to survey using a single photogrammetric platform. The relatively large expanse of the area and the fact that it is partially covered by a protective structure constitute an ideal framework for the fusion of multiplatform imagery. The most accurate digital surface model (DSM) was obtained via point-based method fusion, during which subsets are aligned based on automatically extracted tie points (TPs) between the dense point clouds; however, point-based method fusion is very time consuming. When hardware capabilities allow, conducting the
process in a single block is preferable, which is a noticeably more accurate procedure than independent block fusion.

Findings of Iron Age metallurgical activities related to tin metal and mining are very rare. In the present work, we present a detailed study of the Outeiro de Baltar hillfort, dated to the Late Iron Age/Early Roman period, located in a place where 20th century tin mining work took place. Elemental and microstructural analysis by portable, micro and wavelength dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (pXRF, micro-XRF and WDXRF) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersion spectrometer (SEM-EDS) showed that metallurgical debris found at the archaeological site is related to tin smelting and binary and ternary bronze productions. Analysis of the artefacts of diverse typologies found at the site showed that a variety of metals and alloys were in circulation and use. Samples of tin ores (cassiterite) from the region were analyzed for comparison with an archaeological tin slag from the site. The analytical results point to the production of tin metal using local cassiterite and the production of bronze by directly adding cassiterite into a smelting process. Furthermore, data of remote sensing (airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and historical aerial imagery) and Geographical Information System (GIS) mapping were combined with archival mining documentation and maps to retrieve a landscape context for the site. The study showed that the place of the Outeiro de Baltar hillfort (NW Iberia) was mined periodically over time.

- by João Fonte and +6
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- Remote Sensing (Archaeology), Archaeometallurgy, Iron Age, Geoarchaeology and Lithic Studies

Ne le da stroji gledajo drugače kot ljudje, sam akt gledanja se distribuira po omrežju tehnološke infrastrukture, podatkov in algoritmov; gledanje ni več utelešeno, temveč se razpotegne vzdolž računskih transformacij podatkovnega toka. Podobe, ki jih na koncu ugledamo, so pogledi drugega, tj. senzorja; se producirajo drugje, skozi algoritmične transformacije podatkov iz senzorja in so popolnoma sintetične.

EN: In recent times, archaeology has undergone a process of methodological renewal related to the incorporation of many digital tools and resources. The increasing use of Geographic Information Technologies (GIT), the open-access to geospatial datasets (aerial photography, satellite imagery, LiDAR), the popularisation of new technical equipment –such as UAVs–, or the remarkable progress experienced by the archaeological sciences –geophysics, palaeoenvironmental sampling, absolute dating methods, etc.– have forever changed the discipline. The Romanarmy.eu collective has experienced these changes firsthand, developing a modular methodology to understand better the impact of the extension of the Roman state on the diverse archaeological landscapes of north-western Iberia. The voluminous archaeological information gathered facilitates the overcoming of traditional historical readings of this process, while new approaches allow for new interpretative models that also value the role played by indigenous communities in this process of change. ES: En las últimas décadas, la arqueología ha vivido un proceso de renovación metodológica relacionada con la incorporación de herramientas y recursos digitales. Al creciente uso de tecnologías de información geográfica (TIG) o datos geoespaciales en acceso abierto (fotografía aérea, imágenes satelitales, LiDAR) se une la popularización de nuevos equipamientos técnicos –como los drones– y el notable avance vivido por las ciencias arqueométricas –técnicas de prospección geofísica, análisis paleoambientales, métodos de datación, etc.–. Desde el colectivo Romanarmy.eu hemos experimentado estos cambios en primera línea, incorporándolos a nuestra metodología con el objetivo de comprender mejor el impacto de la extensión del estado romano en los diversos paisajes arqueológicos del noroeste ibérico. La voluminosa información obtenida facilita la superación de las lecturas históricas tradicionales sobre este proceso, mientras que nuevos enfoques permiten plantear nuevos modelos interpretativos que valoren el papel desempeñado por las comunidades indígenas en este proceso de cambio.

- by José M . Costa-García and +6
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- Roman military archaeology, Roman Army, Remote Sensing (Archaeology), Late Iron Age (Archaeology)

In 2018 the Mongolian-German Orchon-Expedition (Mongolian Academy of Sciences, National University of Mongolia, German Archaeological Institute) together with Archaeocopter (Hochschule für Technik und Wirtschaft Dresden, Freie Universität Berlin) conducted large-scale surveys at the sites of the Uyghur capital Qara Balǧasun and the ancient Mongol capital of Qara Qorum. Especially the enormous size of the site of Qara Balǧasun poses a challenge for archaeological research. The unbuilt and sparsely vegetated Mongolian steppe provides ideal preconditions for image-based remote sensing methods. With off-the-shelf, relatively low-cost UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) both sites have been surveyed with thousands of overlapping aerial images. Otho-images and digital elevation models have been generated by photogrammetric methods. The results enable the distinguishing of even faintest remains of ancient constructions. For the first time a complete map of the remains of Qara Balǧasun has b...

- by Victor Thompson
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- History, Native American Studies, Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology

Aerial thermography is one of the least utilized archaeological prospection methods, yet it has great potential for detecting anthropogenic anomalies. Thermal infrared radiation is absorbed and reemitted at varying rates by all objects on and within the ground depending upon their density, composition, and moisture content. If an area containing archaeological features is recorded at the moment when their thermal signatures most strongly contrast with that of the surrounding matrix, they can be visually identified in thermal images.
Research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s established a few basic rules for conducting thermal survey, but the expense associated with the method deterred most archaeologists from using this technology. Subsequent research was infrequent and almost exclusively appeared in the form of case studies. However, as the current proliferation of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) and compact thermal cameras draws renewed attention to aerial thermography as an attractive and exciting form of survey, it is appropriate and necessary to reevaluate our approach.
In this thesis I have taken a two-pronged approach. First, I built upon the groundwork of earlier researchers and created an experiment to explore the impact that different environmental and climatic conditions have on the success or failure of thermal imaging. I constructed a test site designed to mimic a range of archaeological features and imaged it under a variety of conditions to compare and contrast the results. Second, I explored a new method for processing thermal data that I hope will lead to a means of reducing noise and increasing the clarity of thermal images. This step was done as part of a case study so that the effectiveness of the processing method could be evaluated by comparison with the results of other geophysical surveys.

- by Stefano R L Campana
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- Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

Evidence illustrated in this paper are part of a wider and still in progress diachronic study of the landscape of Vulci, enclosed by
Arrone and Chiarone streams. Hereby, I discuss the Roman secondary road system between Vulci, the via Aurelia and the coastal
strip which still uses the pre-280 BC conquest road tracks, except rare routes that in the absence of excavation data cannot be convincingly
dated. The research is based on the study of historical cartography, on surveying and above all on a careful multitemporal
interpretation and mapping of aerial photographs.

The book presents the finds and features of a Pharaonic caravan route, only discovered in 1999, which leads from the Dakhla Oasis in Egypt deep into the Libyan Desert, and therefore brings this area into the focus of Egyptological research for the first time. The route, well-signposted by stone markers and partially well-preserved donkey tracks, is mainly characterised by several supply stations consisting of large deposits of storage jars, most of which contained water. Without the logistically most demanding creation of such chains of artificial „filling stations“ it would have been impossible to conduct large-scale caravan traffic across hundreds of kilometres through barren desert regions in a time when no camels, but only donkeys were available. Based on archaeological investigations carried out within the scope of the Collaborative Research Centre 389 ACACIA at Cologne, the finds and features are thoroughly analyzed (Part I of the book), followed by studies on the practical use of the trail (Part II), and on the possible purpose and historical significance of the caravan route (Part III). As the main result it turned out that the so-called Abu Ballas Trail was an extremely difficult Pharaonic caravan route through the Libyan Desert that was used over many centuries, and repeatedly took a greater significance under very specific geopolitical circumstances. It appears to have served, at least temporarily from the late third millennium BC onwards, as a trade route in order to import luxury items – such as incense, ivory, skins of exotic animals, valuable oils, and others – from sub-Saharan regions first to Dakhla and then further on to the Egyptian Nile Valley, probably in cooperation with „Libyan“ nomadic groups. The route therefore represents the earliest evidence of trans-Saharan trade currently known. Its existence proves that the known world of the ancient Egyptians did not end at the oases of the Western Desert. This fact therefore demands a broadening of the Egyptological scope of view at least up to the point where the modern borders of Libya, Egypt, and Sudan converge. Pharaonic contacts to inner Africa, both cultural and commercial, and their impact and significance to both sides will have to be reevaluated. The same holds true for the extent of the ancient Egyptians’ capabilities, both in terms of organization and logistics, to render such contact possible, without camels, across vast arid wastes. (PhD thesis, University of Cologne, 2011)

- by Frank Förster
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- Ancient History, African Studies, Archaeology, Egyptology

The Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa (EAMENA) project (www.eamena.org) is among the most ambitious archaeological documentation projects ever to have taken place across the Middle East and North Africa. This paper explores the significance of big data approaches for archaeological research, and the important role of the EAMENA project in driving big data research for the MENA region. As the EAMENA database was developed in a UK based academic environment, by a group of researchers with backgrounds in UK academic research and archaeological practice, this paper also includes a brief overview of the history of UK- based initiatives aiming to document digital information about archaeological and heritage sites on a large scale, which can be traced back to the 19th
century. The processes and decisions that shaped the formation of the EAMENA dataset, including its methodology and the structure of the database, will be discussed next. The final part of this chapter introduces the various papers that make up this Special Issue, starting with those that have helped to shape the project’s most important achievement to date — the database itself — and continuing with a few initial explorations of the research potential of the emerging dataset.

- by Letty ten Harkel and +2
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- Archaeology, Cultural Heritage, Digital Archaeology, Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

This project aimed to systematically investigate the archaeological remains of the imperial Domitian villa in Sabaudia (Italy), using different three-dimensional survey techniques. Particular attention in the research was paid to the identification and documentation of traces that buried structures left on the surface occupied by the villa, which extended for 46 hectares, an area that was fully covered with structures. Since a dense pine forest was planted during the 1940s and is currently covering the site, this contribution investigates particularly the correlation among the presence of cropmarks, identifiable with the processing of multispectral maps and vegetation indices from RGB images, and earthwork anomalies identified in a Digital Terrain Model (DTM) built, by utilizing a light detection and ranging (LiDAR) flight from an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV). The study demonstrates how the use of vegetation maps-calculated starting from RGB and multispectral aerial photos-can provide a more expeditious preliminary analysis on the position and extension of areas characterized by the presence of buried structures, but also that, in order to investigate in-depth a context in similar conditions, the most effective approach remains the one based on LiDAR technology. The integration between the two techniques may prove fruitful in limiting the extension of the areas to be investigated with terrestrial survey techniques.

- by Diego Ronchi and +2
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- Multispectral Imaging, Roman Villae, Remote Sensing (Archaeology), Digital Photogrammetry applied to Archaeology

This paper discusses the results obtained inside the ‘Dionysias Archaeological Project’ with the application of a multi-scale methodology and urban network analysis on remotely sensed data. Given the lack of any data from the excavations, it was necessary to exploit the results of all possible techniques in order to obtain new sources of knowledge.
The study of the entire urban complex through non-invasive techniques has shown a detailed map of the ancient settlement of Dionysias, while the application of spatial analysis has given new interpretative models. The challenge of this approach has been focused on the exploitation of remotely sensed data with the application of Space Syntax analysis of the entire urban complex. The use of space syntax added new perspective to the study of the entire settlement, adding a new interpretation of the function of space and of the interactions between social and spatial elements.

- by Carlo Tessaro and +1
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- Urbanism (Archaeology), Egyptian Archaeology, Graeco-Roman Egypt, Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

The study of social space has become a central concern of African archaeology over the past three decades. Responding to critiques of the search for grand narratives (Stahl 1999), many scholars have turned their attention to more synchronic interpretations of social complexity and subjective experience in specific times and places-a move that encourages more critical analyses of socio-spatial relations within sites and across landscapes. In this way, an explicit concern with space aligns with calls for greater theory building in African archaeology (Wynne-Jones and Fleisher 2015) as we pose new questions, and revisit old ones, concerning human-environment interactions (e.g., Chami et al.

This paper is focused on the use of satellite Sentinel-2 data for assessing their capability in
the identification of archaeological buried remains. We selected the “Tavoliere delle Puglie” (Foggia,
Italy) as a test area because it is characterized by a long human frequentation and is very rich in
archaeological remains. The investigations were performed using multi-temporal Sentinel-2 data
and spectral indices, commonly used in satellite-based archaeology, and herein analyzed in known
archaeological areas to capture the spectral signatures of soil and crop marks and characterize their
temporal behavior using Time Series Analysis and Spectral Un-mixing. Tasseled Cap
Transformation and Principal Component Analysis have been also adopted to enhance
archaeological features. Results from investigations were compared with independent data sources
and enabled us to (i) characterize the spectral signatures of soil and crop marks, (ii) assess the
performance of the diverse spectral channels and indices, and (iii) identify the best period of the
year to capture the archaeological proxy indicators. Additional very important results of our
investigations were (i) the discovery of unknown archaeological areas and (ii) the setup of a
database of archaeological features devised ad hoc to characterize and categorize the diverse
typologies of archaeological remains detected using Sentinel-2 Data.

- by rosa lasaponara and +1
- •
- Archaeology, Satellite remote sensing, Remote Sensing (Archaeology)

Neolithic settlements (6th/5th millennium BC) encircled by moats were widespread throughout Europe, including eastern Croatia, on which there is an extensive bibliography. Excavations conducted over the last several years have confirmed the existence of thus far unrecorded methods for the formation and organization of such settlements in eastern Croatia – twin settlements. This new type of settlement was ascertained by means of remote sensing from aircraft and by means of drones, in combination with a series of satellite and aerial vertical photographs,
while the results of field surveys of the sites so discovered have confirmed that they were generally multi-layered, long-term and attributed to the Sopot culture, so that they may be generally dated to the 5th millennium BC.

- by Hrvoje Kalafatić and +1
- •
- Prehistoric Archaeology, Remote Sensing, Aerial Archaeology, Neolithic Archaeology

This paper presents recent results of an integrated non-invasive investigation carried out in a previously unexplored settlement from northeastern Romania, belonging to the last great Eneolithic civilisation of Old Europe, the Cucuteni-Trypillia cultural complex. Although there is a long history of research concerning this culture, at only a handful of sites has archaeological research completed a comprehensive planimetric image. This makes it impossible to determine a typological evolution of the internal organisation of Cucutenian sites, both diachronically, across the three great phases of the culture (A, A−B and B for the Romanian area), and spatially, from SE Transylvania to the Republic of Moldova, and towards the steppes of the Ukraine. Accordingly, in certain environmental conditions, many essential behavioural aspects of Cucutenian communities are far from understood. Consequently, the generalisation and integration of non-invasive prospecting methods—Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR), aerial photography, earth resistivity, magnetometry, and their integration through Geographic Information System (GIS)—clearly represents a feasible alternative for deciphering the Cucuteni culture. These complementary investigation methods were applied for this case study, emphasis being put on the conjoint use of datasets from each technique. On the basis of results recently obtained from the R˘ azboieni–Dealul Mare/Dealul Boghiu site, innovative characteristics are described concerning intra-site spatial organisation, a typology of the fortification systems, the existence of ritual or delimitation ditches, and the presence of habitations outside fortified areas.