Space Policy Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

There is a concern In the developing world that Industrialized countries have not done all they might under Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty to make the benefits of space technology available to all countries; some are now seeking... more

There is a concern In the developing world that Industrialized countries have not done all they might under Article 1 of the Outer Space Treaty to make the benefits of space technology available to all countries; some are now seeking codification of rights and responsibi-Iltles in this sphere. This article discussee recent debate on the Issues by COPUOS and Its Legal Subcommittee on whether an additional legal framework is necessary to ensure a fairer distribution of benefits. G77 countries were strongly in favour of some form of technology and Information transfer, while induatrlalized countries favoured the existing practice of developing international cooperative space projects. The author believes that a new set of principles will be formulated in the next few years and that organizations like Intelaat and Inmarsat can provide valuable models for ensuring access through cooperative programmes.

Mars in unearthly, unchartered, unknown & yet attracts all of humanity. The hazards of the endeavor are overwhelmed by the hype & hope surrounding the enterprise. A variety of individuals, private companies, commercial firms and national... more

Mars in unearthly, unchartered, unknown & yet attracts all of humanity. The hazards of the endeavor are overwhelmed by the hype & hope surrounding the enterprise. A variety of individuals, private companies, commercial firms and national space agencies are engrossed in efforts at landing & inhabiting Mars. However, these efforts are disjoint and there exists little or no coordination. The aspirations as also hazards are immense, the resources scarce & costly. Consequently, left ungoverned, the potential for conflict in space exploration is high. There exists a critical need to regulate and coordinate affairs in this area right now when the technologies and legislation are yet immature. This calls for a credible institutionalized governance structure. This paper proposes an expansion of the existing United Nations Office of Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) to take on the mantle of space exploration governance and to continue with incremental progressions later.

¡ The Space Security Index is the first and only annual, comprehensive, and integrated assessment of space security.

Large-scale, long-term technological programs funded by government are extraordinarily difficult to begin, maintain, and complete. They must negotiate not only technical, but also political hurdles. International connections add to the... more

Large-scale, long-term technological programs funded by government are extraordinarily difficult to begin, maintain, and complete. They must negotiate not only technical, but also political hurdles. International connections add to the complexity. This paper analyzes the course of the International Space Station (ISS) from the perspective of the NASA administrator. The roles of James Beggs, Dan Goldin and Sean O'Keefe are discussed as illustrative of how top federal executives can influence such programs. Much depends on when in the program's life cycle an administrator happens to serve and how long he or she serves. There are times when major decisions are possible, and the course of a program set for years. However, these strategic decisions also require tactical choices along the way. The function of the NASA administrator is to successfully harmonize the political environment and technical realities of a huge program like ISS. Administrators influence the birth and execution of a program through choices they make, resources they acquire, and coalitions of support they build for the program. As a program like ISS extends over many years, program success requires NASA administrators to move a technological enterprise forward, rather than to let it drift or be terminated.

Outer space has become a contested, congested and competitive domain with an ever growing importance to life on Earth. Recently, an increasing number of new players have entered the space arena. Slovakia has also stepped up its space... more

Outer space has become a contested, congested and competitive domain with an ever growing importance to life on Earth. Recently, an increasing number of new players have entered the space arena. Slovakia has also stepped up its space related activities. In March 2013, it declared its interest to become a member of European Space Agency (ESA) by 2020. Increased involvement in space sector will bring new opportunities and responsibilities for Slovakia. Is Slovakia ready to address these challenges?

Moon Mining: Difficulty in Opportunity or Opportunity in Difficulty?

The Earth's orbital space is increasingly threatened by debris. It is frequently described as a common-pool resource vulnerable to a 'tragedy of the commons' scenario. Scholars have suggested ambitious policy proposals to tackle the... more

The Earth's orbital space is increasingly threatened by debris. It is frequently described as a common-pool resource vulnerable to a 'tragedy of the commons' scenario. Scholars have suggested ambitious policy proposals to tackle the tragedy of space debris and assure the sustainability of the Earth's orbits. Their proposals can be classified into three categories: hierarchical regulations, economic incentives and property rights. All three categories require some form of central coordination. However, there might be an alternative approach to the problem and other potential solutions. Elinor Ostrom suggested that decentralized, polycentric systems are appropriate for governing common-pool resources. Anecdotal evidence suggests that a polycentric form of governance can encourage a more sustainable use of the Earth's orbits.

The United Arab Emirates revealed details of both its National Space Policy during the 56th Session of the Legal and Subcommittee meeting in Vienna March 27-April 7, 2017. The presentation, which was given by Naser Alrashedi of the Space... more

The United Arab Emirates revealed details of both its National Space Policy during the 56th Session of the Legal and Subcommittee meeting in Vienna March 27-April 7, 2017. The presentation, which was given by Naser Alrashedi of the Space Policy and Regulations Directory of the UAE Space Agency, is the first substantive look the UAE has proffered to the public of its space policy. The following summation is aggregated from the presentation made on April 6, 2017 and is intended to supplement the previous analysis of the UAE National Space Policy published the 3rd Quarter 2016 (Issue IV) of The Precis on September 2, 2016.

The lean enterprise system, total quality management, six sigma, theory of constraints, agile manufacturing, and business process reengineering have been introduced as universally applicable best methods to improve the performance of... more

The lean enterprise system, total quality management, six sigma, theory of constraints, agile manufacturing, and business process reengineering have been introduced as universally applicable best methods to improve the performance of enterprise operations through continuous process improvement and systemic planned enterprise change. Generally speaking, they represent practice-based, rather than theory-grounded, methods with common roots in manufacturing. Most of the literature on them is descriptive and prescriptive, aimed largely at a practitioner audience. Despite certain differences among them, they potentially complement each other in important ways. The lean enterprise system, total quality management and six sigma, in particular, are tightly interconnected as highly complementary approaches and can be brought together to define a first-approximation "core" integrated management system, with the lean enterprise system serving as the central organizing framework. Specific elements of the other approaches can be selectively incorporated into the "core" enterprise system to enrich its effectiveness. Concrete theoretical and computational developments in the future through an interdisciplinary research agenda centered on the design and development of networked enterprises as complex adaptive socio-technical systems, as well as the creation of a readily accessible observatory of evidence-based management practices, would represent important steps forward.

A space tourism industry appears to be about to take off. Businesses have announced plans to launch people into suborbital space for $200,000/person, with flights beginning as early as 2008. A brief review of the history of the idea of... more

A space tourism industry appears to be about to take off. Businesses have announced plans to launch people into suborbital space for $200,000/person, with flights beginning as early as 2008. A brief review of the history of the idea of space tourism over the past four decades-and an awareness that many ventures have quietly shelved their grandiose plans-might aid thinking about the prospects for development of a safe and thriving space tourism industry. Today's space tourism model emphases the concept of luxury, and the lifestyle of hyper-consumption. It may be worth considering whether and how this conception of space tourism might affect the future of space exploration. r

Based on the premise that both India and Canada are spacefaring nations actively involved in the exploration and use of outer space towards scientific and commercial ends, this paper seeks to pave the way for each of the two countries to... more

Based on the premise that both India and Canada are spacefaring nations actively involved in the exploration and use of outer space towards scientific and commercial ends, this paper seeks to pave the way for each of the two countries to derive optimum scientific and economic benefits from their space activities through bilateral cooperation. Although each country's space programme has a different focus, the analysis in the paper demonstrates that they could be highly complementary of, and beneficial to, each other. Notwithstanding the presently conducive political environment for bilateral cooperation, as evidenced by the recent high-level political exchanges between the two countries, there are several regulatory and policy obstacles that will hinder any efforts towards bilateral space cooperation. The paper proffers some viable options for overcoming the challenges identified or envisaged.

It is often claimed that Social Media are changing the subject of social interaction, empowering people and facilitating new and interactive possibilities. The present paper, an empirically based theoretical reflection on the... more

It is often claimed that Social Media are changing the subject of social interaction, empowering people and facilitating new and interactive possibilities. The present paper, an empirically based theoretical reflection on the participative subject, follows Lacan's and Zizek's philosophical and psychoanalytical thinking by questioning the assumed interactive connotation of user profiles, attitudes and behavior through the philosophical and psychoanalytical concept of 'interpassivity'. It describes how Social Media become a new social fetish for many of the so-called 'produsers', reducing the allegedly social interactions into reified and objectified relationships, 'decentering' the subject from within.

Seit Menschengedenken faszinieren Himmel und Sterne den Erdenbewohner. Bis zu der kopernikanischen Wende war die Erde die Heimat der Menschen und der Himmel die Heimat Gottes (oder Göttern in nicht-monotheistischen religiösen Kontexten).... more

Seit Menschengedenken faszinieren Himmel und Sterne den Erdenbewohner. Bis zu der kopernikanischen Wende war die Erde die Heimat der Menschen und der Himmel die Heimat Gottes (oder Göttern in nicht-monotheistischen religiösen Kontexten). Durch die wissenschaftliche Erforschung des Weltalls erkannte der Mensch langsam, dass der Himmel über seinem Kopf nicht die Heimat von Gottheiten ist, sondern von Planeten, Sonnen, Teilchen und (in der hypothetischen Physik) Strings. Auch der menschliche Traum vom Fliegen, der erst seit Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts seine Realisierung fand, wurde nur innerhalb von Jahrzehnten von der bemannten Raumfahrt eingeholt. Waren seit Jahrtausenden Himmel und Sterne für den Menschen schier unerreichbar, wurden diese schließlich innerhalb von wenigen Jahrhunderten untersucht, erforscht und schließlich technisch bezwungen. Die Utopie vom menschlichen Leben auf fremden Planeten fernab der Erde, scheint in diesem zeitlichen als keineswegs unerreichbar und in allzu weiter Ferne. Auch der Jurist, Staatstheoretiker und politischer Philosoph Carl Schmitt erkannte noch vor dem Start des Sputnik-Satelliten 1957 oder der Mondlandung 1969, die Bedeutung des Weltraums für die Zukunft der Menschheit. Ausdruck fanden seinen Überlegungen im "Gespräch über den Neuen Raum", ein für das Rundfunkprogramm verfasster, fiktiver Trialog, der anschließt an Schmitts Raumtheorien seines bekannten Werkes "Land und Meer". War die Raumfahrt bis zum heutigen Zeitpunkt primär der Ort wissenschaftlicher Betätigung, stellen sich durch technologische Neuerungen und das Drängen privater Akteure ins Weltall neue Fragen. Diese werden stärker als zuvor Fragen sein, die sich im politische Sinne mit dem Raum, der Souveränität und der soziokulturellen Veränderung des Menschen beschäftigen. Carl Schmitt problematisierte diese Fragen bereits vor der Entstehung der menschlichen Raumfahrt, daher sollen seine Gedanken einer zeitgenössischen Analyse werden und in den heutigen Kontext in Verbindung gebracht werden. Daher wird in der vorliegenden Arbeit zunächst ein kurzer Abriss über das "Gespräch über den neuen Raum" gegeben, sowie ein grober Überblick über das Weltraumrecht. Anschließend erfolgt die Analyse der heutigen Raumfahrt und seiner politischen Implikationen aus Schmittianischer Perspektive. Zum Abschluss erfolgt ein Ausblick auf mögliche Entwicklungen der Raumfahrt und ein zusammenfassendes Resümee. 2

Planetary Defense (PD) entails the technical means for mitigating asteroid impact threat and building a viable political framework to arrive at a reliable state of readiness to defend Earth from extraterrestrial impactors. This is an... more

Planetary Defense (PD) entails the technical means for mitigating asteroid impact threat and building a viable political framework to arrive at a reliable state of readiness to defend Earth from extraterrestrial impactors. This is an advocacy paper combining pragmatic arguments based on current, effective and reliable technologies. Short and long-term scenarios to create the essential global defense structures are discussed. Based on such a premise, an acceptable policy solution for all states might be possible. In the first step, we propose to identify existing systems within the nuclear-military-industrial complex as well as those in the civilian domain that might be deployed immediately to set up and conduct a series of exercises showcasing the limits of our current capabilities for PD. Next, we propose and visualize a near-term goal in setting up a globally responsive PD network (fire-station analogue) based on an intergovernmental model under the current political institutional umbrella of the United Nations International Asteroid Warning Network (IAWN) and Space Mission Planning Advisory Group (SMPAG). Each nation with a PD office would take cooperative action under UN coordination. In this model, a network of PD sites are deployed around the world; based on Earth in the respective territories of participating states. Such a model contributes to Transparency and Confidence Building Measures (TCBM) through cooperation on technology development, data sharing, specialists exchange and mitigation infrastructure. In the following step, we propose and visualize to evolve a multipurpose facility on the far side of the Moon, which benefits from the intergovernmental experience and the well rooted confidence from TCBM foundations laid earlier. The base could be used for a variety of applications across scientific, commercial, transportation and defense sectors. Such an installation would thrive only when built and operated by an authority respected globally by all states without exception. A gargantuan task, which is achievable if enough confidence is achieved among nations. We also base the political architecture on recent historical experience in international relations and cooperation. In particular, it is based on the will of sovereign states to cooperate on environmental issues, collaborate on complex projects like the international space station, CERN, ITER and to further develop the Responsibility to Protect paradigm toward achieving perpetual peace and to enhance the long term survivability of our species and the biosphere. PD offers a clear argument why the future outer space regime has to be based on a renewed determination for global cooperation.

This paper analyzes the objectives and activities of space exploration programs, and presents action plans and guidelines for a future sustainable global space exploration platform. While new cooperative mechanisms have emerged in recent... more

This paper analyzes the objectives and activities of space exploration programs, and presents action plans and guidelines for a future sustainable global space exploration platform. While new cooperative mechanisms have emerged in recent decades, the now-unfolding era of global space exploration will lead to new models of cooperation, reflecting the legacy of partnerships and the evolution of a global endeavor. Consequently, the successful alignment of national and international stakeholders along lines drawn by commonality of purpose will be crucial to achieve a basis for marshalling sufficient resources for ambitious space projects, and to create necessary new political, economic, and legal frameworks. For the development of a successful global space exploration program, traditional approaches may need to be supplanted by a new paradigm including focus on information exchange, organizational knowledge, and human capital e as practiced in high-performance organizations (HPOs) e that go well beyond the current international working groups and multinational space efforts.

The public is generally supportive of space policy, but less supportive of spending for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) compared to other government programs. Previous research has helped identify who is more... more

The public is generally supportive of space policy, but less supportive of spending for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) compared to other government programs. Previous research has helped identify who is more likely to be supportive of NASA spending, but not why. This study seeks to understand the causal mechanisms that influence support for NASA. Using natural between-survey and induced within-survey experiments, this study attempts to identify factors influencing changes in public support for NASA spending. Short-term programmatic and related media effects appear to have no influence on public support for NASA spending. However, correcting information asymmetries in regard to NASA's budget appears to have a significant positive effect on public support for NASA spending. The findings speak to the importance of the public being well informed on policy issues in order to make a correct policy choice, and demonstrate that individual programmatic aspects may not be as important as overall agency direction.

Among the greatest obstacles to the implementation of crewed space missions are human biological limitations. Difficulties were always envisioned in relation to both Earth's moon and Mars but more so for Mars because long... more

Among the greatest obstacles to the implementation of crewed space missions are human biological limitations. Difficulties were always envisioned in relation to both Earth's moon and Mars but more so for Mars because long spaceflights would also expose crew to prolonged microgravity conditions, in addition to radiation. The result could well be osteoporosis, bone fractures, and disability. In this article, we do not contest the validity of bone loss studies. Rather, we question a seemingly tacit assumption about the immutability of human nature. Indeed, new, invasive, and noninvasive techniques of human enhancement already allow humans to enjoy modifications that will enable lengthy space missions. The alteration of human DNA has not only aided cancer patients but, for example, by using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing procedure, can also help to prevent damage to limbs and joints that a prolonged Mars mission could cause for the crew. Possible ethical objections to this solution are discussed, and trade-offs between risks and benefits outlined.

A belief exists in the United States about public support for NASA's human spaceflight activities. Many hold that NASA and the cause of the human exploration of space enjoyed outstanding public support and confidence in the 1960s during... more

A belief exists in the United States about public support for NASA's human spaceflight activities. Many hold that NASA and the cause of the human exploration of space enjoyed outstanding public support and confidence in the 1960s during the era of Apollo and that public support waned in the post-Apollo era, only to sink to quite low depths in the decade of the 1990s. These beliefs are predicated on anecdotal evidence that should not be discounted, but empirical evidence gleaned from public opinion polling data suggests that some of these conceptions are totally incorrect and others are either incomplete or more nuanced than previously believed. This article explores the evolution of public support for space exploration since the 1960s. Using polling data from a variety of sources it presents trends over time and offers comments on the meaning of public perceptions for the evolution of space policy and the development of space exploration in the United States.

One of the most common and enduring justifications for space exploration is its potential to enable humanity to access the vast store of resources in our solar system. Recent discussion has tended to focus on what we shall call... more

One of the most common and enduring justifications for space exploration is its potential to enable humanity to access the vast store of resources in our solar system. Recent discussion has tended to focus on what we shall call "near-Earth resources" (NERs), which include those of the moon and near-Earth asteroids (NEAs). They include potentially vast stores of water, iron, and platinum-group metals among the NEA population; so-called 'peaks of eternal light', i.e. places of uninterrupted sunlight (for solar energy collection); and crater areas in more or less permanent darkness (able to harbor water ice) on the moon; He3 in the lunar regolith; and the relatively banal resource of terrestrial orbital niches. What is often lost in the enthusiasm concerning such NERs is that, in spite of the immensity of space, they are, practically speaking, quite scarce, even when abundant in principle. Only a small percentage of the NEA population is profitably accessible in the absence of distant, futuristic technology; only so much of the lunar surface (or elevated areas just above it) is permanently illuminated (or shadowed); the He3 concentration in the lunar regolith is very low, geographically differentiated and reduces with depth (the regolith on asteroids is also likely to be less mature and so He3 concentration levels are likely to be lower); and, as is already well-known, there are only so many available orbital allocations. These practical realities suggest that issues of sustainability will not vanish during at least the early stages of space exploitation, and perhaps at all stages for the foreseeable future. They do not support unrelenting and unregulated utilization and consumption. In fact, quite the opposite. Practical scarcity suggests that NER utilization should be carefully managed. Although the need for regulation is widely recognized in the case of orbital allocations (and to a lesser extent in the case of NEA mining 2 ), nevertheless little discussion has taken place concerning regulation for other forms of NER exploitation. Our aim in this paper is to broach the discussion of NER regulation in broad-form. Despite the generality of our discussion, however, our recommendations will be salient to both present and nearfuture space policy.

Among the greatest obstacles to the implementation of crewed space missions are human biological limitations. Difficulties were always envisioned in relation to both Earth's moon and Mars but more so for Mars because long spaceflights... more

Among the greatest obstacles to the implementation of crewed space missions are human biological limitations. Difficulties were always envisioned in relation to both Earth's moon and Mars but more so for Mars because long spaceflights would also expose crew to prolonged microgravity conditions, in addition to radiation. The result could well be osteoporosis, bone fractures, and disability. In this article, we do not contest the validity of bone loss studies. Rather, we question a seemingly tacit assumption about the immutability of human nature. Indeed, new, invasive, and noninvasive techniques of human enhancement already allow humans to enjoy modifications that will enable lengthy space missions. The alteration of human DNA has not only aided cancer patients but, for example, by using the CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing procedure, can also help to prevent damage to limbs and joints that a prolonged Mars mission could cause for the crew. Possible ethical objections to this solution are discussed, and trade-offs between risks and benefits outlined.

David L. Glackin is a remote sensing scientist with The Aerospace Corporation in Los Angeles, California, where he is on senior staff. He has authored over 70 publications in remote sensing, solar physics, stellar atmospheres, geophysics... more

David L. Glackin is a remote sensing scientist with The Aerospace Corporation in Los Angeles, California, where he is on senior staff. He has authored over 70 publications in remote sensing, solar physics, stellar atmospheres, geophysics and image processing. He has given many invited talks and chaired sessions at international conferences. He has worked on remote sensing physics, phenomenology, sensor concepts, sensor design, and data interpretation for Earth environment and solar applications across the spectrum from X-rays to microwaves. He is also the principal author of the book Civil, Commercial and International Remote Sensing Systems and Geoprocessing. The views expressed in this book review are solely his own, and not those of his employer.

Le New space en Europe : état des lieux de la littérature.

In recent years, space debris has become a matter of considerable importance within the public perception of spaceflight activities. As media coverage, outreach activities and stakeholder interest gain more and more relevance, so does the... more

In recent years, space debris has become a matter of considerable importance within the public perception of spaceflight activities. As media coverage, outreach activities and stakeholder interest gain more and more relevance, so does the question how space debris can be understood as a sociotechnical challenge that contemporary and future societies depend-ing on space-based services need to address. Similar to problems like climate change or marine pollution, space debris appears as a sustainability issue of global magnitude that requires us to think about outer space in terms of a sus-tainable societal future. Yet, space debris also di ers from such seemingly comparable challenges in some regards, as, for example, it is only to be un-derstood within the context of recent space sector developments like the rise of New Space. Paying attention to security concerns as well as the specific ecological status of outer space environments, we outline possible avenues to painting a better picture of space debris’ role in contemporary public and policy debates. Bringing to the table a perspective influenced by Science and Technology Studies (STS), we thereby highlight space debris to be a bidirec-tional risk phenomenon. We conclude, that broader societal engagement in facing the challenge of space debris might be vital for handling it eÿciently and e ectively and propose potential vectors for stakeholder participation.

Is the government responsive to public opinion of space policy? In 1995, Stimson et al. demonstrated that changes in domestic public policy were in response to changes in public opinion. Ten years later, Jacobs and Page demonstrated that... more

Is the government responsive to public opinion of space policy? In 1995, Stimson et al. demonstrated that changes in domestic public policy were in response to changes in public opinion. Ten years later, Jacobs and Page demonstrated that foreign policy was not responsive to public opinion, and instead responds to the opinion of business leaders. This research builds off these seminal works to explore who influences space policy. Findings suggest that the public supports the idea of space exploration, while also feeling that spending on space exploration is “too high.” Therefore, the government appears to be giving the people exactly what they want in regards to NASA’s budget – more money each year – but at the same time a smaller percentage of the federal budget.

After years of international stalemate talks on space arms control were finally initiated in Geneva in 2009. The position of the new US administration, however, is still waiting to be defined. This article assesses the advantages and... more

After years of international stalemate talks on space arms control were finally initiated in Geneva in 2009. The position of the new US administration, however, is still waiting to be defined. This article assesses the advantages and disadvantages of different arms control proposals by looking at them from the perspectives of interdependence theory, neoliberal institutionalism and neo-realism, respectively. They all come to similar conclusions as far as conventional military power and security are concerned: any formal or informal ban on debris-producing activities in space would be highly advantageous to the USA and its allies. When the analysis also takes into account US missile defense policy, however, a neo-realist perspective shows rather mixed results.

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with... more

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues. Other uses, including reproduction and distribution, or selling or licensing copies, or posting to personal, institutional or third party websites are prohibited. In most cases authors are permitted to post their version of the article (e.g. in Word or Tex form) to their personal website or institutional repository. Authors requiring further information regarding Elsevier's archiving and manuscript policies are encouraged to visit: http://www.elsevier.com/copyright

Elon Musk has sought to position his private aerospace company, SpaceX, as the future of space exploration, even as the feasibility of its initiatives remains to be seen. Although the level of support for public space programs has been... more

Elon Musk has sought to position his private aerospace company, SpaceX, as the future of space exploration, even as the feasibility of its initiatives remains to be seen. Although the level of support for public space programs has been well established by previous research, we know less about how people perceive private space travel initiatives, particularly those—like the SpaceX Mars colonization proposal—that involve civilian participation. Today's young people are the first generation who may find themselves or their children deciding whether to leave Earth for another planet. In this study, we compare the case Musk is making for the SpaceX colonization plan to young adults' perceptions of that plan, using data gathered from 81 college students who participated in interviews and focus groups on this topic. We argue that the rhetoric of private space initiatives has the potential to create new visions of our spacefaring future, but also new points of resistance for the civilians needed to support these initiatives. Our analysis revealed doubts regarding feasibility, concerns related to cost, and an individualized sense of risk that outweighed more generalized benefits. We conclude with implications for those seeking public support for private space initiatives, as well as plans for tracking public sentiment regarding private space travel as it changes over time.

The main objective of this dissertation is to outline the development of International Space Law in the field of space debris mitigation and remediation. The purpose is to provide a legal analysis starting from the Treaties and Principles... more

The main objective of this dissertation is to outline the development of International Space Law in the field of space debris mitigation and remediation. The purpose is to provide a legal analysis starting from the Treaties and Principles of Law that make up the Corpus Iuris Spatialis, up to the proposal of a Code of Conduct for Space Debris Mitigation. The study is focused on the need of defining a technical and juridical set of rules at international level and is divided in three main parts. The aim of the first chapter is to evaluate the role of the already existing Treaties and to technically define what constitutes space debris because of a normative gap in the international regulatory system. Starting from the definition elaborated by Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination and from the role of the North American Aerospace Defense Command’s space objects catalogue, it will be examined the process of space debris accumulation, i.e. Kessler Syndrome. Indeed, security and sustainability play a primary role for the maintenance of Outer Space calling all the States to act diligently and responsibly in the interest of all international space community actors. The second chapter goes through the actual International legal regime for the mitigation and remediation of space debris, starting from the non-binding IADC and UNCOPUS Guide Lines, passing through the legally binding provisions set out in the International Space Law Treaties, arriving to the Space Situational Awareness system role. In the third part, it will be presented the Case Law concerning Cosmos 954 aiming at providing a concrete example of dispute settlement and to understand how the International Space regulations work. A comparison between International Environmental Law’s provisions, such as the ones included in the 1972 Stockholm Declaration or in the 1992 Rio Declaration, and the provision of Space Law promoting Outer Space and Earth natural environment is also provided. Furthermore, the United Kingdom’s Outer Space Act, entered into force in 1986, shows how international provisions on space debris shall be implemented domestically. In the end, they will be presented the possible ways of enhancing the International Legal system on space debris mitigation through three main options based on the European Center for Space Law proposal: a voluntary regime of adherence, a United Nation Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space approach or a voluntary Code of Conduct on Space Debris mitigation. To date, the possibility of reaching an agreement on an International Code of Conduct, a voluntary scheme under the coordination of the United Nations, that can combine all three options listed above, seems to be a comprehensive solution and, according to the current dynamics of international norms of Space Law, even the most concrete.

Les puissances spatiales contemporaines sont soit les héritières de la guerre froide comme les États-Unis et la Russie, soit des États qui ont investi de longue date dans l'espace comme le Japon et la France qui a entraîné l'Europe dans... more

Les puissances spatiales contemporaines sont soit les héritières de la guerre froide comme les États-Unis et la Russie, soit des États qui ont investi de longue date dans l'espace comme le Japon et la France qui a entraîné l'Europe dans son sillage. Depuis un peu plus d'une décennie, des puissances émergentes poursuivent leurs efforts afin de se doter d'une capacité spatiale autonome. L'Inde et la Chine y parviennent chacune à leur manière. Le Brésil qui a joué de malchance dans le développement d'un lanceur national continue à nourrir des ambitions dans ce domaine. Ces trois puissances présentent des compétences inégales et sont relativement dissemblables dans leurs formes d'occupation de l'espace, dans leurs organisations politico-administratives, dans leurs structures et compétences industrielles, dans les relations entre acteurs civils et militaires, dans les coopérations privilégiées tant au niveau bilatéral que régional. Ces trois pays dits émergents, caractérisés par de vastes territoires inégalement pourvus d'infrastructures terrestres possèdent, en plus des motivations classiques de reconnaissance internationale et de fierté nationale, une dimension particulière, celle de la contribution effective des satellites au développement économique national et à l'aménagement plus équilibré du territoire. L'étude analyse successivement pour chacun des États, ses activités spatiales nationales, son organisation politique et industrielle, ses priorités nationales et leurs implications internationales. À l'issue de ce panorama, une analyse comparée des forces et faiblesses de chacun des États en prenant en compte le niveau de compétences qu'ils visent à l'horizon de la prochaine décennie et sur leurs convergences possibles est présenté. Cette étude de l'IRSEM réalisée par trois analystes reconnus et coordonnée par le colonel Jean-Luc Lefebvre, responsable de programme et expert en stratégie spatiale, actualise à point nommé les connaissances relatives aux politiques spatiales de trois puissances en pleine évolution.

Implicit in many analyses of the use of cyber power in international politics and foreign policy is that realist geopolitics no longer matter. Even when the term geopolitics is used in such analysis, it is as though the geography has... more

Implicit in many analyses of the use of cyber power in international politics and foreign policy is that realist geopolitics no longer matter. Even when the term geopolitics is used in such analysis, it is as though the geography has become unmoored from the politics. While there is undoubtedly a geographic foundation to cyberspace because of its physical infrastructure of networked computers, cables, and satellites, it is widely assumed that the geographic setting has no relevance to the political use of cyber power by states and non-state actors. This article argues that while cyberspace shrinks time and space in many obvious ways, the geographic setting still matters in the use of cyber power. Further, compre- hending the geopolitics of cyber power can help policymakers and analysts understand the identity, motivations, and intentions of actors.

Korea’s space development program was created almost 40 years behind those of the advanced countries but it has nevertheless made remarkable progress. Korean space development has been focused on technology catch-up, where... more

Korea’s space development program was created almost 40 years behind those of the advanced countries but it has nevertheless made remarkable progress. Korean space development has been focused on technology catch-up, where commercialization and growth of industrial competitiveness are important rationales. However, the program has several problems, including: lack of a space equipment manufacturing industry, total system companies in the space manufacturing industry and communication between industry and researchers, and much concentration of projects and initiatives in the Korean Aerospace Research Institute (KARI). This study analyzes the problem by comparing space agencies and programs in Korea and other countries, particularly Japan and the USA. It is shown that the role of a national laboratory is critical in space industry development and argued that KARI should make greater efforts to promote the Korean space industry by encouraging technology transfer, sharing equipment and communication between companies. For successful space development, the main organization – usually the national research institute – should change its role from a research-only laboratory to manager and supporter of space development and industry. Such a move would invigorate Korea’s space industry and allow it to catch up with countries with a similar environment.

This work investigates the permissibility and viability of property rights on the celestial bodies, particularly the extraterrestrial aspects of land and mineral resources ownership. In lay terms, it aims to find an answer to the question... more

This work investigates the permissibility and viability of property rights on the celestial bodies, particularly the extraterrestrial aspects of land and mineral resources ownership. In lay terms, it aims to find an answer to the question -Who owns the Moon?‖

I argue that the moral justification for space science is more compelling than the moral justification for space development. Thus, we ought to reemphasize the status of science as a major stakeholder in space, especially when... more

I argue that the moral justification for space science is more compelling than the moral justification for space development. Thus, we ought to reemphasize the status of science as a major stakeholder in space, especially when entertaining policies which might encourage the kinds of space development activities (e.g. resource exploitation) that are liable to conflict with the scientific uses of space.

I am sympathetic to the view that, given the likelihood of massive natural disasters, such as collisions between the Earth and large asteroids, we should engage in large-scale space exploration and colonization so as to hedge our bets... more

I am sympathetic to the view that, given the likelihood of massive natural disasters, such as collisions between the Earth and large asteroids, we should engage in large-scale space exploration and colonization so as to hedge our bets against extinction. I will consider several criticisms of this view. For example, some philosophers may raise objections against the notion of long-term human survival as a value. How can we have obligations towards beings who have not even been conceived yet and thus cannot be properly said to have rights? On a different note, Wendell Berry argues that the abundance of resources in space will produce bad character, for good character requires the discipline of finitude. Others challenge the connection between space exploration and survival, for they fear that by entertaining the promise of new Earths in the heavens we are more likely to neglect our planet, thus leading to our downfall. Presumably, we should instead increase our efforts to restore and preserve the balance of nature. I will advance a variety of replies. For example, we do decide for posterity to a great extent. We may plant the trees from which “our” descendants will receive nourishment and shade, or we may destroy what could have given them a fighting chance against drought and famine. We have an obligation not to plant a bomb that will go off two years from now in a hospital nursery, and another to ensure that the buildup of chemicals in the hospital water tank will not reach critical mass and kill most of the newborns in ten years. The “balance of nature” involved in another objection is a myth that cannot be justified by natural history, whether astronomical or biological. Moreover, the inevitable changes in the environment, independent of asteroid impacts, will make the Earth uninhabitable in a few hundreds of millions and years. In addition, in order to act wisely we need an understanding of the Earth as a planet, and this requires the exploration of space.

The wide commercial spread of very high resolution data which can enable the precise description of important targets (such as critical military facilities) along with their accurate coordinates has created fears that these data could be... more

The wide commercial spread of very high resolution data which can enable the precise description of important targets (such as critical military facilities) along with their accurate coordinates has created fears that these data could be a valuable tool if they fall in the wrong hands. Until recently this dissemination was nearly uncontrollable. Google and Microsoft via their online, geospatial applications enriched with very high-resolution images of the world, enhanced the concerns that such detailed imagery constituted an essential threat to internal security. The main hypotheses of this paper are that this technological breakthrough cannot be rolled back, it is here to stay, and since it has security implications it need to be controlled. The key research question to be addressed is what are the options governments have to control the distribution of these data ensuring that their national security interests are properly safeguarded?

An introduction to the major questions and issues that comprise the interdisciplinary field of philosophy of space.

Selon de nombreux commentateurs, le spatial entrerait désormais dans une nouvelle ère, celle du NewSpace marquée par l'arrivée de nouveaux acteurs privés et proposant un accès à l'espace pour tous grâce à de nouveaux systèmes innovants.... more

Selon de nombreux commentateurs, le spatial entrerait désormais dans une nouvelle ère, celle du NewSpace marquée par l'arrivée de nouveaux acteurs privés et proposant un accès à l'espace pour tous grâce à de nouveaux systèmes innovants. Ces approches se traduisent par de nombreux projets dans le domaine des petits satellites et des petits lanceurs. Si la dimension technologique et industrielle est largement soulignée, la signification stratégique de ce changement est clairement oubliée. Or, les implications d'un accès direct à des technologies spatiales à moindre coût supposent de prendre aussi en compte les évolutions possibles de la notion de puissance spatiale. L'étude se propose d'analyser en profondeur la réalité et les modalités de cette "rupture" en particulier en s'intéressant à la notion d'innovation. Elle est destinée à évaluer l'impact de ces changements sur la sécurité internationale et à fournir ainsi des moyens objectifs de réfléchir au futur positionnement français et européen dans ses dimensions technologiques, industrielles, économiques, politiques et stratégiques.