Bees Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

- by
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- Algorithms, Animal Behavior, Computational Biology, Mass Spectrometry

Under laboratory conditions, the effects of thiamethoxam were investigated in larvae, pupae and emerging honey bees after exposure at larval stages with different concentrations in the food (0.00001 ng/μL, 0.001 ng/μL and 1.44 ng/μL). Thiamethoxam reduced the survival of larvae and pupae and consequently decreased the percentage of emerging honey bees. Thiamethoxam induced important physiological disturbances. It increased acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity at all developmental stages and increased glutathione-S-transferase (GST) and carboxylesterase para (CaEp) activities at the pupal stages. For midgut alkaline phosphatase (ALP), no activity was detected in pupae stages, and no effect was observed in larvae and emerging bees. We assume that the effects of thiamethoxam on the survival, emergence and physiology of honey bees may affect the development of the colony. These results showed that attention should be paid to the exposure to pesticides during the developmental stages of ...

- by Jean-Luc Brunet
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- Environmental Pollution, Multidisciplinary, Bees, Pesticides

6,10,14-Trimethylpentadecan-2-one (Hexahydrofarnesyl acetone; HHA) previously has been found to be a major component in tibial fragrances of male orchid bees, Euglossa spp. HHA is a chiral molecule with four possible stereoisomers, (6R, 10R)-, (6R, 10S)-, (6S, 10R)-, and (6S, 10S)-6,10,14-trimethylpentadecan-2-one. In the present study, we characterized HHA extracted from Euglossa as the pure enantiomer (6R, 10R)-6,10,14-trimethylpentadecan-2-one. During bioassays in Mexico and Panama, the synthetic RR-isomer attracted males of six species of orchid bees, including three that were known to contain HHA in their tibial fragrances. Possible sources of HHA for wild bees are flowers of euglossophilous orchids and aroids. With a molecular weight of 268, HHA is the largest natural molecule known to attract male orchid bees in pure form. Its attractiveness to males suggests that low-volatility compounds have a function in male signals, e.g., serve as a "base note" in complex odor bouquets.

- by Erika Wallin
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- Chemical Ecology, Chemical, Animal communication, Panama

The ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor, is the most destructive parasite of managed honeybee colonies worldwide. Since V. destructor transfers pathogens to honeybees, it may be adaptive for bees to respond to mite infestation by upregulating their immune responses. Mites, however, may overcome the host's immune responses by suppressing them, which could facilitate the mite's ability to feed on hemolymph. A humoral immune response of bees parasitized by V. destructor may be detected by studying the expression levels of antibacterial peptides, such as abaecin and defensin, known to be immune-responsive. Expression levels for these two antibacterial peptides changed non-linearly with respect to the number of mites parasitizing honeybee pupae. Bees exposed to low or moderate number of mites had fewer immune-related transcripts than pupae that were never parasitized or pupae with high mite loads. Although many of the pupae tested indicated the presence of bacteria, no correlation with mite numbers or immune-response levels existed. All bees tested negative for acute paralysis and Kashmir bee viruses known to be vectored by V. destructor.

- by Jay Evans
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- Zoology, Immune response, Innate immunity, Gene expression

The increasing demand upon honey bees for pollination services and their recent unexplained colony losses has lead to a surge of public and scientific interest in honey bee Apis mellifera pathology (Evans and Schwarz, 2011; Aizen and Harder, 2009). Honey bees are faced with multiple stressors such as poor nutrition, pesticides and exposure to pathogens, which combined may have a significant impact on colony survival (van Engelsdorp and Meixner, 2010). Thus, identifying the roles of cryptic, as well as more obvious, stressors is important for understanding their possible interactions with other threats. Honey bees are susceptible to high diversity of parasites of which certain newly emerged groups e.g. viruses, Varroa destructor, Nosema ceranae (Amdam et al., 2004; Fries, 2010; Genersch and Aubert, 2010) have attracted much attention. However, the impacts of other less studied parasites on colony health as well as their interactions with other stressors may also deserve more consideration. Stonebrood is considered to be a pathogen of low virulence in honey bee colonies yet very little is known regarding the stonebrood and honey bee host-parasite system (Gilliam and Vandenberg, 1988; Bailey, 1968). A number of species from the genus Aspergillus are facultative parasites and have been reported as agents of

- by kirsten foley
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- Microbiology, Veterinary Microbiology, Survival Analysis, Biodiversity

Africanized honey bees (Apis mellifera, Hymenoptera: Apidae) in Brazil are tolerant of infestations with the exotic ectoparasitic mite, Varroa destructor (Mesostigmata: Varroidae), while the European honey bees used in apiculture throughout most of the world are severely affected. Africanized honey bees are normally kept in hives with both naturally built small width brood cells and with brood cells made from European-sized foundation, yet we know that comb cell size has an effect on varroa reproductive behavior. Three types (sizes) of brood combs were placed in each of six Africanized honey bee colonies: new (self-built) Africanized comb, new Italian comb (that the bees made from Italian-sized commercial foundation), and new Carniolan comb (built naturally by Carniolan bees). About 100 cells of each type were analyzed in each colony. The Africanized comb cells were significantly smaller in (inner) width (4.84 mm) than the European-sized comb cells (5.16 and 5.27 mm for Italian and ...

- by David De Jong
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- Genetics, Bees, Mites

Pesticides are currently used inside hives, against the honeybee parasite Varroa destructor, producing unwanted contamination effects. To assess the distribution and fate of one of these pesticides (coumaphos), two experimental hives were treated with Perizin (the commercial product containing the active ingredient coumaphos). Samples of honey, wax, pollen, adult bees and larvae taken before treatment and up to 104 days afterwards, showed diffuse contamination. Wood hedges and wax bridges, where the pesticide solution was applied, were analysed as well. A mass balance was calculated, yielding a recovered amount of around 60% just after treatment and 38% 1 month later. Directly contaminated surfaces and wax contained the highest amount of residues. Wax and honey contained different amounts (10, and 0.1% respectively) but both retained residues for long time. Bees ingest most of the product just after treatment, then rapidly eliminate it by metabolism, advection and deposition processes. On the basis of analytical results, a simple model (level I of the fugacity model) was applied to the hive system for different pesticides (coumaphos, malathion, fluvalinate and bromopropylate). Predicted concentrations in wax and honey were compared with those measured, indicating the good predictive capability of this approach.

- by marco vighi
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- Ecotoxicology, Biological Sciences, Insecticides, Environmental Sciences
- by Stefano Maini
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- Physiology, Zoology, Insect Physiology, Bees

The worldwide spread of diseases is considered a major threat to biodiversity and a possible driver of the decline of pollinator populations, particularly when novel species or strains of parasites emerge. Previous studies have suggested that populations of introduced European honeybee (Apis mellifera) and bumblebee species (Bombus terrestris and Bombus ruderatus) in Argentina share the neogregarine parasite Apicystis bombi with the native bumblebee (Bombus dahlbomii). In this study we investigated whether A. bombi is acting as an emergent parasite in the non-native populations. Specifically, we asked whether A. bombi, recently identified in Argentina, was introduced by European, non-native bees. Using ITS1 and ITS2 to assess the parasite's intraspecific genetic variation in bees from Argentina and Europe, we found a largely unstructured parasite population, with only 15% of the genetic variation being explained by geographic location. The most abundant haplotype in Argentina (found in all 9 specimens of non-native species) was identical to the most abundant haplotype in Europe (found in 6 out of 8 specimens). Similarly, there was no evidence of structuring by host species, with this factor explaining only 17% of the genetic variation. Interestingly, parasites in native Bombus ephippiatus from Mexico were genetically distant from the Argentine and European samples, suggesting that sufficient variability does exist in the ITS region to identify continent-level genetic structure in the parasite. Thus, the data suggest that A. bombi from Argentina and Europe share a common, relatively recent origin. Although our data did not provide information on the direction of transfer, the absence of genetic structure across space and host species suggests that A. bombi may be acting as an emergent infectious disease across bee taxa and continents. Citation: Maharramov J, Meeus I, Maebe K, Arbetman M, Morales C, et al. (2013) Genetic Variability of the Neogregarine Apicystis bombi, an Etiological Agent of an Emergent Bumblebee Disease. PLoS ONE 8(12): e81475.

- by Carolina Laura Morales
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- Engineering, Genetics, Geography, Physics
- by Nenad Tasic
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- Ancient History, Biochemistry, Archaeology, Anatolian Archaeology

The natural mycobiota occurring in bee pollen is studied in the present report with special attention to analyze the incidence of fungal species that are potential producers of mycotoxins. A total of 90 ready-to-eat bee pollen samples were analyzed. Eighty-seven samples were collected in stores placed in different Spanish areas and three were from Buenos Aires (Argentina). The statistical results (ANOVA) showed that yeasts and Penicillium spp. were the predominant fungi. With regard to the potential mycotoxin producing species, Penicillium verrucosum, Aspergillus niger aggregate, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus and Alternaria spp. were found. The last genus was isolated very frequently. The potential ability for producing ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G 1 and G 2 was studied by culturing in vitro the isolates followed by analysis of these mycotoxins in culture extracts by HPLC with fluorescent detection. It was found that 100%, 53.3%, 33.3% and 25% of the isolates of A. carbonarius, A. ochraceus, P. verrucosum and A. niger aggregate, respectively, produced OTA. Moreover, 28.6% of the isolates from the A. flavus plus A. parasiticus group were able to produce aflatoxin B 1 . Aflatoxin B 2 was detected in only 10% of the cultures. Aflatoxins G 1 and G 2 were not detected in cultures under the assayed conditions. This is the first report carried out on the natural mycobiota occurring in bee pollen in general and on the toxigenic capability of these isolates in particular.

- by Angel Medina
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- Microbiology, Industrial Biotechnology, Food Microbiology, Spain
- by Jacobus Boomsma
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- Physiology, Zoology, Social insects, Insect Physiology

Using historic data sets, we quantified the degree to which global change over 120 years disrupted plant-pollinator interactions in a temperate forest understory community in Illinois, USA. We found degradation of interaction network structure and function and extirpation of 50% of bee species. Network changes can be attributed to shifts in forb and bee phenologies resulting in temporal mismatches, nonrandom species extinctions, and loss of spatial co-occurrences between extant species in modified landscapes. Quantity and quality of pollination services have declined through time. The historic network showed flexibility in response to disturbance; however, our data suggest that networks will be less resilient to future changes.

- by John Marlin
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- Science, Pollination, Multidisciplinary, Bees

Insects are everywhere and in great numbers. Their impact on us is unquestionable, but a number of scientists are expanding what we can learn from these creatures – whether for environmental reasons or to help humans to live longer. One... more

- by Aldemaro Romero Jr.
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- Entomology, Bees

Interactions between pesticides and parasites are believed to be responsible for increased mortality of honey bee (Apis mellifera) colonies in the northern hemisphere. Previous efforts have employed experimental approaches using small groups under laboratory conditions to investigate influence of these stressors on honey bee physiology and behaviour, although both the colony level and field conditions play a key role for eusocial honey bees. Here, we challenged honey bee workers under in vivo colony conditions with sublethal doses of the neonicotinoid thiacloprid, the miticide tau-fluvalinate and the endoparasite Nosema ceranae, to investigate potential effects on longevity and behaviour using observation hives. In contrast to previous laboratory studies, our results do not suggest interactions among stressors, but rather lone effects of pesticides and the parasite on mortality and behaviour, respectively. These effects appear to be weak due to different outcomes at the two study si...

- by Pius Winiger
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- Microbiology, Environmental microbiology, Ecotoxicology, Biology

For bumblebee colony survival, sugar responses are crucial as nectar is the main carbohydrate source and flower choice is likely determined by sugar composition. This study used a bioassay both with harnessed and with free-moving workers of the bumblebee Bombus terrestris to study the gustatory response to the 3 major plant sugars by both groups. In harnessed workers of B. terrestris, a concentration of 5.5% of fructose and glucose was required to induce the proboscis extension reflex in 50% of the workers, whereas for sucrose, a much higher concentration of 40% was needed. In contrast, free-moving workers given a choice between 30% glucose, 30% sucrose, 30% fructose, and water showed a strong preference for sucrose (66% of individuals) compared with 18% for glucose and 16% for fructose; water was never chosen. Familiarization with 30% fructose provoked a significant increase in preference toward fructose, indicating plasticity. In addition, by amputation of the tarsi, it was found that tarsi plays a role in the sugar response with especially the foreleg tarsi being involved in the response to fructose. Our results demonstrated that sugar response is different in free-moving versus harnessed bumblebee workers and that tarsi plays a role in sugar perception.

- by Guy Smagghe
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- Biology, Medicine, Biological Sciences, Bees

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- by Catherine Armengaud
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- Nonparametric Statistics, Memory, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences

Honey bee larvae are highly susceptible to the bacterial pathogen Paenibacillus larvae only during the first instar of larval development. Transcript levels were measured for genes encoding two antimicrobial peptides, abaecin and defensin, as well as for two candidates in the immune response cascade (PGRP-LD and masquerade) in control larvae and larvae exposed to the pathogen. Transcripts for all four are present throughout development. This suggests that other physiological or dietary factors may better explain the age-based change in vulnerability to this pathogen. One of these genes, abaecin, shows significant up-regulation 24 h following oral inoculation with P. larvae, precisely when the bacterium surmounts the midgut epithelia of bees. Expression of both antimicrobial peptides varied by 1000-fold across different nestmate bees, indicating an allelic component to their expression. The implications of these results for current hypotheses related to disease tolerance in social insects are discussed, along with implications for breeding bees resistant to this important disease.

- by Jay Evans
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- Zoology, Immune response, RNA, Innate immunity

By depositing scent marks on flowers, bees reduce both the search time and the time spent with the handling of nonrewarding flowers. They thereby improve the efficiency of foraging. Whereas in honey bees the source of these scent marks is unknown, it is assumed to be the tarsal glands in bumble bees. According to histological studies, however, the tarsal glands lack any openings to the outside. Foragers of the stingless bee Melipona seminigra have previously been shown to deposit an attractant pheromone at sugar solution feeders, which is secreted at the tips of their tarsi. Here we show that the claw retractor tendons have specialized glandular epithelia within the femur and tibia of all legs that produce this pheromone. The secretion accumulates within the hollow tendon, which also serves as the duct to the outside, and is released from an opening at the base of the unguitractor plate. In choice experiments, M. seminigra was attracted by feeders baited with pentane extracts of the claw retractor tendons in the same way as it was attracted by feeders previously scent marked by foragers. Our results resolve the seeming contradiction between the importance of foot print secretions and the lack of openings of the tarsal glands.

- by Stefan Jarau
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- Chemical Ecology, Pheromones, Brazil, Chemical

This article appeared in a journal published by Elsevier. The attached copy is furnished to the author for internal non-commercial research and education use, including for instruction at the authors institution and sharing with colleagues.

- by Stefano Maini
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- Physiology, Zoology, Climate Change, Insect Physiology
- by David Roubik
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- Bees

Creamed honey is a non-liquid form of honey. This type of honey is produced mainly by adding nuclei
(i.e. previous creamed honey) to liquid honey. In this research, chemical characteristics of creamed
honey produced using two nuclei types; 10% of creamed honey (M1), and 2.4% of powdered
glucose (M2) at a storage temperature of 5°C were investigated. The sugar content, pH, and water
percent were chemically analyzed. The results showed that sucrose, fructose and moisture percents
were significantly higher in creamed honey produced using M1 by 1.09, 1.69 and 1.65%, respectively
than M2. On the other hand, creamed honey produced using M2 had significantly higher glucose
percent and pH by 2.4% and 0.53, respectively than M1. The study highlighted the noticeable
impacts of nuclei type on characteristics of creamed honey. The results of this study have a special
importance to creamed honey producers.

- by Dr. Hossam Abou-Shaara
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- Bees, Honey, Honey Bees

Trophallaxis among adult worker honeybees is the transfer of liquid food by mouth from one individual to another. Within the colony, nectar foragers perform offering contacts (as food-donors) to transfer the contents of their crops to recipient nest-mates and, in addition, they also perform begging contacts (as food-receivers). The biological relevance of these last interactions remains unknown. Previous evidence suggests that begging may be involved in the exchange of information on food resources that occurs naturally between employed foragers and nest-mates. This work was aimed to reveal possible connections between the information obtained while foraging and the begging behavior displayed inside the nest. Experiments were intended to (1) analyze whether chemosensory information obtained while foraging, i.e., odors and sucrose concentrations, affects begging behavior, and (2) determine whether resource uncertainty enhances begging contacts. Results showed that: (1) most begging c...

Network analyses of plant-animal interactions hold valuable biological information. They are often used to quantify the degree of specialization between partners, but usually based on qualitative indices such as 'connectance' or number of links. These measures ignore interaction frequencies or sampling intensity, and strongly depend on network size. Here we introduce two quantitative indices using interaction frequencies to describe the degree of specialization, based on information theory. The first measure (d') describes the degree of interaction specialization at the species level, while the second measure (H2') characterizes the degree of specialization or partitioning among two parties in the entire network. Both indices are mathematically related and derived from Shannon entropy. The species-level index d' can be used to analyze variation within networks, while H2' as a network-level index is useful for comparisons across different interaction webs. Ana...

- by Florian Menzel
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- Evolutionary Biology, Information Theory, Argentina, Ecology

Thin-layer chromatography of ethanolic extract of propolis (EEP) from the continental and Adriatic regions of Croatia showed that 72.2% of propolis samples contain galangin, 88.8% of samples contain kaempferol, naringenin and apigenin and 66.6% of samples contain caffeic acid. Caffeic acid, pinocembrin, galangin, chrysin and naringenin were analyzed by HPLC. In all samples, pinocembrin was the dominant flavonoid. In samples from the Adriatic region, concentration of pinocembrin ranged from 0.03 to 6.14% (x = 2.87%) and in the continental region samples from 0 to 4.74% (x = 2.84%). Chrysin was found in all propolis samples in a concentration ranging from 0.22 to 5.32% (x = 1.86%) in the continental region samples and from 0.03 to 3.64% (x = 1.96%) in samples from the Adriatic region. Chrysin was followed by naringenin, ranging from 0 to 1.14% (x = 0.42%) in samples from the Adriatic region and from 0.22 to 2.41% (x = 0.60%) in the continental region samples. Concentration of caffeic ...

- by Marina Bakmaz
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- Flavonoids, Propolis, Bees, Croatia

Enfleurage, the extraction of elusive floral scents with the help of a lipophilic carrier (grease), is widely used in the perfume industry. Male neotropical orchid bees (Euglossini), which accumulate exogenous fragrances as pheromone analogues, use a similar technique. To collect fragrances, the bees apply large amounts of straight-chain lipids to odoriferous surfaces from their cephalic labial glands, which dissolve the volatiles, and the mixture is then transferred to voluminous hind-leg pockets. Here, we show that males do in fact operate a lipid conveyor belt to accumulate and concentrate their perfume. From the hind-leg pockets of caged male Euglossa viridissima, deuterated derivatives of carrier lipids were consecutively sequestered, shuttled back to the labial glands and reused on consecutive bouts of fragrance collection. Such lipid cycling is instrumental in creating complex perfume bouquets. Furthermore, we found that labial glands of male orchid bees are strikingly similar to those of scent-marking male bumblebees in terms of size, form and structure. This, and a prominent overlap in secretory products, led us to propose that perfume collection evolved from scent-marking in ancestral corbiculate bees.

- by Klaus Lunau
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- Animal Behavior, Biological Sciences, Lipids, Bees

Invasive carnivorous plant species can impact the native invertebrate communities on which they prey. This article explores the predation of native UK bumblebees (Bombus spp.) by the invasive pitcher plant species Sarracenia purpurea and discusses the potential effect of S. purpurea on native bumblebees. Specifically, it evaluates whether the extent to which bumblebees are captured varies (i) over successive years, (ii) across June and July, (iii) with density of distribution of pitchers or (iv) with bumblebee gender. Pitcher contents were examined from an established population of Sarracenia purpurea growing in Dorset, UK. Results show that the total extent to which bumblebees were captured differed over the years 2012-2014 inclusive. A 1-year study in 2013 showed that more bumblebees were caught in July than in June and more bumblebees were captured when pitchers grew at high density. Results from 2013 also showed that more pitchers caught more than one bumblebee than would be expected based on a normal probability distribution and that this phenomenon affects female and male bumblebees equally. We discuss possible reasons for these results including that the bumblebees may be using S. purpurea as a resource. Further work is required to establish the exact underpinning mechanisms and the relative roles of plant and bumblebee behaviour within the relationship. Such interaction complexity may have consequences for consideration in invasive carnivorous plant management.

- by Iain Green
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- Zoology, Plant Biology, Biology, Invasive species ecology

An evidence-based systematic review including written and statistical analysis of scientific literature, expert opinion, folkloric precedent, history, pharmacology, kinetics/dynamics, interactions, adverse effects, toxicology, and dosing.

- by Karta Purkh Khalsa
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- Pharmacology, Evidence Based Medicine, Toxicology, Interaction

Based on the measurements of 1063 flower reflection spectra, we show that flower colours fall into distinct clusters in the colour space of a bee. It is demonstrated that this clustering is caused by a limited variability in the floral spectral reflectance curves. There are as few as 10 distinct types of such curves, five of which constitute 85% of all measurements. UV reflections are less frequent and always lower in intensity than reflections in other parts of the spectrum. A further cluster of colour loci is formed in the centre of the colour space. It contains the colour loci of green leaves, several other background materials and only very few flowers. We propose a system to classify the reflection functions of flowers, and a set of colour names for bee colours.

- by Niko Troje
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- Mathematics, Colour Vision, Color Perception, Bees

Victims of massive bee attacks become extremely ill, presenting symptoms ranging from dizziness and headache to acute renal failure and multiple organ failure that can lead to death. Previous attempts to develop specific antivenom to treat these victims have been unsuccessful. We herein report a F(ab)´2-based antivenom raised in horse as a potential new treatment for victims of multiple bee stings. The final product contains high specific IgG titers and is effective in neutralizing toxic effects, such as hemolysis, cytotoxicity and myotoxicity. The assessment of neutralization was revised and hemolysis, the primary toxic effect of these stings, was fully neutralized in vivo for the first time.

- by C. Caricati and +1
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- Multidisciplinary, Bees, Mice, Immunization

Sennertia mites live as inquilines in the nests of carpenter bees and disperse as deutonymphs on newly emerged adult bees. Because their life cycle is tightly linked to that of the host bees, Sennertia may diverge in response to speciation in the hosts. However, the majority of Sennertia species are associated with several closely related carpenter bees, suggesting that host speciation may not be reflected in mite genetic structure. Here we investigate the extent of host-associated genetic differentiation in two Sennertia mites (S. alfkeni and S. japonica) that share four closely related, strictly allopatric large carpenter bees (Xylocopa). Analysis of the mitochondrial cytochrome oxidase subunit I (COI) gene in Sennertia unexpectedly indicates that the two species represent morphological variants of a single species, and they collectively group into four distinct, allopatric clades that are uniquely associated with a single Xylocopa host. An exception is the mites associated with X. amamensis of the northernmost populations, which have genotypes typical of those associated with neighboring X. appendiculata circumvolans. Additional analysis using amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) further corroborates the presence of four mite clades but contrary to the COI data, suggests that the mites of the southernmost population of X. appendiculata circumvolans have genetic profiles typical of those associated with X. amamensis. These results indicate that some mites have undergone secondary host switch after the formation of the four mite lineages and further experienced mitochondrial introgression during period of lineage coexistence. Overall, our results strongly urge reappraisal of deutonymph-based mite taxonomy and illuminate the importance of host-associated divergence during incipient stage of speciation in chaetodactylid mites. Furthermore, the occurrence of host switch and introgression between genetically differentiated mites entails that two host species have co-occurred in the past, thus providing a unique source of evidence for migration and competitive exclusion between the presently allopatric Xylocopa hosts.

- by Yuichi Kameda
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- Evolutionary Biology, Genetics, Zoology, Mitochondria

Michigan’s current level of food production and its agricultural economy are in jeopardy due to drastic honey bee population declines across the state over the past seven years. This problem should be a priority for policy makers; honey bee losses affect almost everyone in the state because over a third of the food we consume is pollinated by bees. The causes of honey bee population decline are multiple and interconnected. A growing body of research shows that the principal factors involved are parasites and pathogens, environmental stressors, and monocrop farming, widespread use of pesticides, and industrial beekeeping practices within the paradigm of conventional industrial agriculture. In addition to individual stressors, there are synergetic interactions between some stressors that increase the vulnerability of managed honey bee colonies. Many of Michigan’s agricultural products—such as soybeans, dry beans, apples, blueberries, cherries, cucumbers, and other produce—depend on honey bee pollination to produce a good crop. Michigan is a state that relies heavily on pollination services to maintain its agricultural production, but it has been hard hit by honey bee population declines. Honey bee losses of more than 30% annually have been reported by Michigan beekeepers over the past few years, with the 2013/2014 winter poised to be even worse. Honey bee population declines in Michigan will likely not improve, and could continue to worsen, unless the problem is addressed by policy makers and other stakeholders in a substantive way. Because the problem involves many different causal factors and actors spanning agricultural production and consumption, potential solutions are also complex. There are various local-level mitigation measures that beekeepers, farmers, and the general public can implement, such as improving communication with beekeepers about pesticide application, reducing or eliminating the use of insecticides, and improving the area of habitat for bee-friendly forage. Initiatives to connect and support Michigan beekeepers using sustainable practices are also promising. But on their own, local steps are likely not enough to stem honey bee population declines; higher-level institutional approaches are also needed. A combination of facilitated dialogue among key Michigan stakeholders, legislation, and litigation originating at the state or national level could provide the additional impetus needed to rein in and reverse honey bee colony losses in the state. This paper provides recommendations for effectively implementing a multi-stakeholder dialogue process, and proposes modifications to legislation targeted at improving honey bee populations nationally.

The mode of action of honey bee pollen (HBP) was investigated in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) challenged with Aeromonas hydrophila. Thus, fish with an average weight of 29 ± 3 g were divided into four groups, and fed with HBP-free diet (control), and 1%, 2.5% and 4% (w/v) HBP incorporated into basal diet for 10, 20 and 30 days. Immunological, hematological, biochemical and growth parameters were measured, and sub-groups of fish were challenged with A. hydrophila via intraperitoneal injection. HBP significantly increased the growth performance parameters [body weight, length, average daily gain (ADG), specific growth rate (SGR), and feed efficiency ratio (FER)] and immunological (phagocytic activity, serum bactericidal activity and nitroblue tetrazolium assay (NBT)), hematological (hematocrit (Hct), leucocrit (Lct), the numbers of neutrophils, monocytes and lymphocytes) and biochemical parameters (serum total protein, albumin and globulin ratios). Furthermore, all treated fis...

- by Amel Asely
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- Zoology, Diet, Fish Diseases, Innate immunity

Honey bees undergo a physiological transition from nursing to foraging approximately 21 days after adult emergence. This transition is delayed by ethyl oleate (EO), a primer pheromone produced by foragers when exposed to ethanol from fermented nectar. We demonstrate here that two secreted α/β-hydrolases (BeeBase ID: GB11403 and GB13365) are responsible for the reversible esterification of ethanol with oleic acid, giving EO. Expression of hydrolase GB11403 was shown to be significantly up-regulated in foragers, relative to nurses. Tissue perfusion experiments with labeled substrates consistently localized the highest level of EO production in the head, whereas insitu imaging revealed expression of relevant EO biosynthetic genes and enzymatic activity along the esophagus, the site of ethanol exposure during nectar intake. Both α/β-hydrolases were expressed in Pichia pastoris, purified and were shown produce EO in vitro. Experiments with live bees fed ethanol demonstrated that EO forme...

- by Yves Le Conte
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- Zoology, Pheromones, In Situ Hybridization, Bees

Queenless workers of the Cape honeybee (Apis mellifera capensis) can develop into reproductives termed pseudoqueens. Although they morphologically remain workers they become physiologically queenlike, produce offspring, and secrete mandibular gland pheromones similar to those of true queens. However, after queen loss only very few workers gain pseudoqueen status. A strong intracolonial selection governs which workers start oviposition and which remain sterile. The “queen substance”, 9-keto-2(E)-decenoic acid (9-ODA), the dominant compound of the queen's mandibular gland pheromones, suppresses the secretion of queenlike mandibular gland pheromones in workers. It may act as an important signal in pseudoqueen selection. By analysing the mandibular gland pheromones of workers kept in pairs, we found that A. m. capensis workers compete to produce the strongest queen-like signal.

- by Robin Crewe
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- Reproduction, Pheromones, Multidisciplinary, Social behavior

Since the primordial of humanity, pollen has been considered a good source of nutrients and energy. Its promising healing properties have also been referred to. The present study aimed to characterize, for the first time, eight commercial pollens from Portugal and Spain available on the market studying the legislation on labeling, pollinic origin, physicochemical and microbiological analyses and identification of yeasts. Eleven botanical families were found amongst the samples. The most abundant family and the most dominant pollen was Cistaceae. The moisture content, ash, a w , pH, reducing sugars, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and energy were analyzed and the specific parameters were within the specifications required by some countries with legislation regarding these parameters. Microbiologically commercial pollen showed acceptable safety for the commercial quality and hygiene. All samples showed negative results for toxigenic species. The microorganisms studied were aerobic mesophiles, yeasts and moulds, coliforms, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella and sulfite-reducing Clostridium. During the work, six yeasts species were isolated from pollen, with Rhodotorula mucilaginosa being the most abundant, as it was present in four samples.

- by Leticia Estevinho
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- Genetics, Bees, Pollen, Food Labeling

Geographic profiling (GP) was originally developed as a statistical tool to help police forces prioritize lists of suspects in investigations of serial crimes. GP uses the location of related crime sites to make inferences about where the offender is most likely to live, and has been extremely successful in criminology. Here, we show how GP is applicable to experimental studies of animal foraging, using the bumble-bee Bombus terrestris. GP techniques enable us to simplify complex patterns of spatial data down to a small number of parameters (2-3) for rigorous hypothesis testing. Combining computer model simulations and experimental observation of foraging bumble-bees, we demonstrate that GP can be used to discriminate between foraging patterns resulting from (i) different hypothetical foraging algorithms and (ii) different food item (flower) densities. We also demonstrate that combining experimental and simulated data can be used to elucidate animal foraging strategies: specifically that the foraging patterns of real bumble-bees can be reliably discriminated from three out of nine hypothetical foraging algorithms. We suggest that experimental systems, like foraging bees, could be used to test and refine GP model predictions, and that GP offers a useful technique to analyse spatial animal behaviour data in both the laboratory and field.

- by Nigel Raine
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- Geography, Algorithms, Animal Behavior, Animal Behaviour
- by Michele Amorena
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- Engineering, Analytical Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry, Organic Chemistry

Natural plant products have been studied for potential use as in-hive fumigants for suppression of parasitic mites and other pests. A more direct application through direct feeding of bees would avoid problems with fumigant volatility in cold climates and provide a more systemic route of exposure for the target pest. However, there must be a balance between toxicity to hive pests and toxicity (safety) to the bees. We focused on adult bee toxicity when testing ten products: cineole, clove oil, formic acid, marjoram oil, menthol, oregano oil, oxalic acid, sage oil, thymol, and wintergreen. Each product was tested at several concentrations in a sugar syrup fed to bees over several days, and dead bees were counted daily. Oxalic acid was the most toxic of the products tested. Menthol and cineole had mortality levels no different from controls fed plain syrup after 8 days of treatment. At 14 days of treatment, wintergreen was the least toxic, but neither menthol nor cineole were a part of the testing that went to 14 days. Our results indicate that the tested products could all be used safely for treating bees orally if dose is carefully managed in the hive.

- by Peter Kevan
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- Zoology, Entomology, Biological Control, Bees

† Background and Aims A test was made of the hypothesis that papilionate legume flowers filter pollinators according to their ability to exert strength to open flowers to access rewards. In addition, interactions with pollen vectors were expected to explain the structural complexity of the architecture of these flowers since operative flower strength may be determined by a combination of morphological traits which form part of an intrafloral functional module. † Methods Six papilionate species were studied: Collaea argentina, Desmodium uncinatum, Galactia latisiliqua, Lathyrus odoratus, Spartium junceum and Tipuana tipu. Measurements were made of the strength needed to open keels and the strength that pollinators were capable of exerting. Morphological traits of all petals were also measured to determine which of them could be either mutually correlated or correlated with operative strength and moment of strength and participated in a functional module. † Key Results It was observed that pollinators were capable in all cases of exerting forces higher and often several times higher than that needed to access floral rewards, and no association could be detected between floral operative strength and strength exerted by the corresponding pollinators. On the other hand, strong and significant correlations were found among morphometric traits and, of these, with operative strength and moment. This was particularly evident among traits of the keel and the wings, presumably involved in the functioning of the floral moveable mechanism. † Conclusions Though visitors are often many times stronger than the operative strength of the flowers they pollinate, exceptionally weak bees such as Apis mellifera cannot open the strongest flowers. On the other hand, strong correlations among certain petal morphometric traits (particularly between the keel and wings) give support to the idea that an intrafloral module is associated with the functioning of the mechanism of these legume flowers. In addition, the highly significant correlations found across petals support the view of functional phenotypic integration transcending the ontogenetic organization of flower structure.

- by Andrea Aristides Cocucci
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- Plant Biology, Argentina, Ecology, Pollination

Histone post-translational modifications (PTMs) play a key role in regulating a variety of cellular processes including the establishment, maintenance and reversal of transcriptional programmes in eukaryotes. However, little is known about such modifications in the economically and ecologically important insect pollinator, the honey bee (Apis mellifera). Using mass spectrometry approaches, we show that histone H3.1, H3.3 and H4 of the honey bee are extensively modified by lysine acetylation and lysine methylation. We analysed histones isolated from queen ovaries and 96 hr-old larvae, in toto we quantified 23 specific modification states on 23 distinct peptides. In addition, we have identified and characterised patterns of histone PTMs that reside on the same peptide, generating detailed combinatorial information. Overall, we observed similar profiles of histone PTMs in both samples, with combinatorial patterns of lysine methylations on H3K27 and H3K36 more frequently identified in histones extracted from queen ovaries than from larvae. To our knowledge, this comprehensive dataset represents the first identification and quantitation of histone PTMs in this eusocial insect and emerging epigenetic model.► Honey bee histones are post-translationally modified. ► For the first time, we identify and quantify 23 individual histone modifications in honey bee whole larvae and queen ovaries. ► Combinatorial analyses suggest a histone code exists in the honey bee. ► Histone modifications provide a potential mechanism to mediate phenotypic plasticity in the honey bee.

- by Mark Dickman
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- Zoology, Mass Spectrometry, Bees, Methylation
- by Dora Ventura
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- Colour Vision, Life history, Comparative Physiology, Comparative

Honey bee samples from 54 apiaries originating from 37 geographic locations of Greece were screened for Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Furthermore 15 samples coming from 12 geographic locations were screened also for Paenibacillus larvae and Melissococcus plutonius and seven honey bee virus species, for the first time on a nation-wide level. There was a tendency in finding proportionally higher spore counts in samples from apiaries that suffered important colony losses. P. larvae bacteria were identified in two samples and each of the tested bee viruses could be detected in at least one of the examined samples, with IAPV, CBPV and SBV being the least abundant and BQCV and DWV being the most abundant. In the study we focused on polymorphism of a N. ceranae gene encoding a polar tube protein (PTP) as similar genes were proven to be highly polymorphic in the microsporidian parasites Encephalitozoon cuniculi and Encephalitozoon hellem. The polymorphism observed in the PTP gene sequences from a single sample (bee hive) was unexpected and can thus be considered to be a major obstacle for genotyping.

- by Marleen Brunain and +1
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- Zoology, Polymorphism, Environmental Monitoring, Greece

American foulbrood is a severe bacterial disease affecting larvae of the honeybee Apis mellifera and it is caused by Paenibacillus larvae larvae. The disease is present worldwide and cases have been reported in almost all the beekeeping regions of the five continents. During 2001 and 2002 we carried out a nationwide study to assess the presence and amount of P. l. larvae spores in honey samples from Uruguay, combining classic bacteriological, and molecular approaches. The distribution of P. l. larvae spores in honey of the whole country showed a clear pattern and may provide useful data for a control and prevention strategy of American foulbrood.

- by Karina Antúnez
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- Zoology, Uruguay, Bees, Apis mellifera

The in vitro rearing of honey bee larvae becomes an important tool for modern studies. Honey bee larvae are very fast in their growth. Thus, it is not easy to control the larvae within the beehives. Therefore, the need for rearing the larvae in the laboratory becomes very high to enable the control of larval food and growth. Here, I present all information that related to the in vitro rearing of honey bee larvae in a simple way and precisely. This book can help and guide those are interested in apiculture to the successful rearing of the larvae. All the chapters talk about the western honey bees (Apis mellifera). Also, all the Chapters contain information for beginners as well as for experts.

- by Dr. Hossam Abou-Shaara
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- Entomology, Apiculture, Agricultural Entomology, Bees

Insects are able to combat infection by initiating an efficient immune response that involves synthesizing antimicrobial peptides and a range of other defense molecules. These responses may be costly to the organism, resulting in it exploiting endogenous resources to maintain homeostasis or support defense to the detriment of other physiological needs. We used queenless worker bees on distinct dietary regimes that may alter hemolymph protein storage and ovary activation to investigate the physiological costs of infection with Serratia marcescens. The expression of the genes encoding the storage proteins vitellogenin and hexamerin 70a, the vitellogenin receptor, and vasa (which has a putative role in reproduction), was impaired in the infected bees. This impairment was mainly evident in the bees fed beebread, which caused significantly higher expression of these genes than did royal jelly or syrup, and this was confirmed at the vitellogenin and hexamerin 70a protein levels. Beebread was also the only diet that promoted ovary activation in the queenless bees, but this activation was significantly impaired by the infection. The expression of the genes encoding the storage proteins apolipophorins-I and-III and the lipophorin receptor was not altered by infection regardless the diet provided to the bees. Similarly, the storage of apolipophorin-I in the hemolymph was only slightly impaired by the infection, independently of the supplied diet. Taken together these results indicate that, infection demands a physiological cost from the transcription of specific protein storage-related genes and from the reproductive capacity.

- by Zilá Luz Paulino Simões
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- Physiology, Zoology, Nutrition, Reproduction
- by Luc Belzunces
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- France, Multidisciplinary, Bees, Pollen

I nvasive plants can displace native species through competition for nutrients, water, light and space. Here we show that they may also exert indirect pressure by competing for pollinators. We use the Asian plant Impatiens glandulifera as an example -this aggressive invader tempts bee pollinators away from native flowers with its rich nectar, which is more rewarding than that of any known native plant in central Europe. This causes a reduction of seed set in local plants in the vicinity and enables I. glandulifera to take over, reducing the fitness of native flora before competition for other resources even takes effect.

- by Lars Chittka
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- Reproduction, Multidisciplinary, Nature, Bees

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- by Raul Cano
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- Science, Multidisciplinary, Dominican Republic, Amber