Tholos Tombs Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino... more

- by
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- Religion, History, Ancient History, Military History

This paper, first presented at the Aegaeum 'Potnia' conference in 2001, put forward new evidence for the importance of the sun in Minoan religion. At the Mesara-type tombs of the Early—Middle Minoan period, the doorways are aligned to dawn at specific times of year, suggesting seasonal activities associated with the dead. Later, at the Knossos 'Throne Room', each of the polythyron doorways admits the rising sun at a different time of year — echoing those favoured at the Mesara-type tombs — creating dramatic lighting effects focused on the 'throne', the 'Lustral Basin' and the inner doorway respectively, which would have enhanced the impact of any rituals enacted there.

SUMMARY: Lecture 15 provides coverage on the art, architecture, state, administration, and economy of the Late Bronze Age Mycenaeans, and a discussion of the presumed Mycenaean takeover or domination of Crete (Minoans); the Minoan initially influenced mainland Greece, while the Mycenaeans later influenced Crete. This lecture is designed mainly as an educational resource for college students (i.e., normally posted only on my institution's course website), the public (e.g., people auditing my course), and interested colleagues from other disciplines (to whom I provide copies privately). I am posting it here, both as a broader access, educational tool, and especially to promote the study of this region and its past societies. For further knowledge about this region and period, I refer interested parties to the textbooks and other sources from which the materials were extracted (see syllabus), and/or the bibliographies in these works and my online resource guides (see other files in my academia folders). The lecture summarizes the pertinent materials in the course textbook(s), adding in other data, and furnishing numerous images to clarify information encountered within the textbook(s). Some generic imagery (usually indicated as such) is posted to aid in transmitting various concepts visually, and/or when a specific image remains not located (temporarily). I update and revise such lectures each time, with such elective courses normally being taught once every two years. I try to cover the most current, mainstream views, and usually place summary notes at the end of each lecture alongside some of the key sources used for compiling the ppt. Over time, each lecture is improved, errors rectified, and additional data placed within the lecture. These ppt. lectures take many hours to compile, but they have proved useful to many of my more serious students and I hope they can be of benefit to others as well. My apologies for any errors I may have made, and my liberal usage of educational imagery from professional sources and vetted internet sources. REVISED: March 2024, new formatting, slides, and text, with some text modifications, also adding a Late Minoan IIIC (1200-1100 BCE) summary section at the end, and additional sources.

- by John Bennet
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- Funerary Archaeology, Aegean Archaeology, Archaeology of Identity, Tholos Tombs

This thesis is contains descriptions and definitions of the 2nd millennium BC tholos tomb architecture in Mainland Greece. The study area is divided into eight regions: Peloponnessos, Central Greece, Epirus, Attica, Euboea, Thessaly, Macedonia and Thrace. The time period of earliest tomb dated between 2000-1675 BC and the latest between 1320-1160 BC. Attention has been put on issues of typological characteristics, construction technique and stone materials of the tholos tombs.

- by Nil Dirlik
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- Tomb Architecture, Tholos Tombs, Tholos
- by Valentina Caminneci
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- Archaeology, Classical Archaeology, Greek Literature, Greek Tragedy

Aim of this chronicle is to re-examine the circumstances in which the excavation of the tholos tomb at Kapakli, Volos was conducted (1905) and to highlight some scientific and social parameters of Konstantinos Kourouniotis’s research in a milieu in which the national vision was drawing argumentation through the monuments and adulation of antiquity was trying to heal recent wounds (Greek-Turkish War of 1897), as well as to underpin the “Hellenic” roots of the recently-annexed new territories (1881). Assessed too is the exemplary manner of the excavation procedure and the excellence of the publication of the finds, characteristics distinctive of the entire oeuvre of this ground-breaking Greek archaeologist public functionary, whose activity starts in the romantic 19th century, but whose genius and method are motivated by the scientific principles and rationalist values of the 20th.

It has long been observed that emerging élites utilize the practice of conspicuous consumption as a means of expressing and maintaining their positions of power and authority. Perhaps the most obvious application of this practice can be seen in the use of large-scale architecture, which provides those élite with both the means through which to produce a lasting testament to their wealth and power and a mechanism by which to attract the prestige and resources from their competitors. The fertile world of the southern Peloponnese during the late Middle Bronze and early Late Bronze Age provides one example of such a process at work. Here, over the course of several generations, small segments of the native population succeeded in transforming the socio-political landscape from one inhabited by a rural, largely isolated people to one characterized by a series of palace centres whose products, influence and perhaps even inhabitants stretched across the central and eastern Mediterranean. While this process of state formation continued at different rates and in a variety of manners in different areas of the Peloponnese and Central Greece, its course can be divided into three broad phases in the Argolid. During the first phase, the so-called Shaft Grave period (i.e., late MH through LH I/II), despite the absence of true monumental architecture, there are clear indications of an exponential growth in the wealth and status of individuals at the site of Mycenae through the construction of elaborate graves and the deposition of exotic and rich burial goods in Grave Circle B. The second phase, which covers the period roughly LH II-LH IIIA:1, sees a shift in the method of burial, marked by the introduction of the first instance of monumental architecture in the area: the tholos tomb, a large corbel-vaulted structure whose monumentality, already evident in its design and size, was frequently enhanced through the incorporation of ashlar masonry elements. The final phase, which spans roughly LH IIIA:1 through LH IIIB and which is characterized by the first certain appearance of palatial structures, is marked by both a switch in the technique of constructing monumental walls, from ashlar to Cyclopean masonry, and a shift in the types of structures to which this monumentality was applied. The present paper attempts to show how this evolution in architectural practice reflects concurrent changes in the socio-political system which produced these monuments.

As part of the project to republish the Kamilari tholos tomb cemetery, this paper offers a preliminary re-assessment of MM III activity and use related to the main tholos, also known as Grigori Koryphi. First, the paper discusses morphological and decorative aspects of the main MM III pottery shapes found in the tomb. Second, by relating vessel shapes to specific areas of the tholos, it draws a clearer picture of distribution of vessels and considers what ritual offerings and activities were carried out. Finally, the evidence is set in the crucial political landscape of the western Mesara region during MM III, with reference to the collapse of the main power centre (Phaistos) and the shift of power and administrative activities to Ayia Triada.

- by Vassilis Petrakis
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- Tholos Tombs, Ancestors, Mycenaean Crete, naiskoi

The destruction of the palaces in the Greek mainland and the wider disruptions in the wider Eastern Mediterranean signify important social, economic, and political changes. Many scholars have seen population movement as the outcome of these events, while in the Aegean they have often been associated with the epic tradition of the Nostoi. The analysis of the burial tradition in the Cyclades and the South−eastern Aegean can
provide a useful insight on the changes and the questions related to migrations and indigenous developments. The position and contacts of this region with the Greek mainland centres, westernAnatolia and the Hittite hinterland adds important information to the post−palatial Aegean discourse. The funerary traditions in the Eastern Aegean and Western Anatolia will be presented in order to reveal the influences and interactions between different regions in this part of the Aegean.

- by Mercourios Georgiadis and +1
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- Settlement Patterns, Mycenaean, Rhodes, Asia Minor
- by Christina Marabea
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- Tholos Tombs, Messenia
- by Diana Dimitrova
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- Architecture, Thracian Art And Iconology, Thracian Archaeology, Thracian religion
- by Maria Stamatopoulou
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- Funerary Archaeology, Thessaly, Tumuli, Tholos Tombs

ÖZ Tholos Mezarlar hakkında ilk araştırmaların 1900'lü yıllarda yapıldığı bilinmektedir. MÖ 2. bin içerisinde Myken Tholos Mezarlarının en fazla karşımıza çıktığı bölge olan Kıta Yunanistan'da en erken veriler Orta Hellas III en geç veriler ise Geç Hellas III dönemlerini göstermektedir. Birçok bilim adamının ilgisini çekmeyi başarmış olan bu konu ile ilgili ilk kapsamlı araştırmalar ve yayınlar Mykenai'deki 9 tholos üzerinde yapılmıştır. Mykenai'de ilk çalışmalar 1840 yıllarında Yunan Arkeoloji Derneği tarafından başlatılmış, ilk geniş ölçekli araştırmalar ise Heinrich Schliemann tarafından gerçekleştirilmiştir. Tholosların ilk sistematik kazıları ise 1873 yılında Atreus tholosuna yapılan sondaj çalışmaları ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu tarihlerden günümüze kadar olan süreçte tholos mezar tanımının tam olarak neyi ifade ettiği hakkında farklı görüşler ortaya çıkmıştır. Fernand Robert, MÖ I.bin yılda Yunan dairesel yapılarıyla ilgili araştırmasında, Yunanlılarda " tholos " kelimesinin ilk anlamını bulmaya çalışmıştır. Ona göre, kelime kökeninde piramit gibi üst üste binen ve dairesel planda yükselen dal yığınlarından ve kerpiçten meydana gelen bir kulübeyi kaplayan ve yüzeyinde süs olarak bitki işlemeleri bulunan unsura işaret eder, diğer bir anlamı aynı şeklin verildiği dam çatısıdır, bir diğer anlamı ise kulübenin kendisine ve bu formdaki yapılara karşılık gelir. Ingo Pini, ise bir mezar yapısının tholos tanımına uyabilmesi için toprak yüzeyinde yuvarlak veya yuvarlağa yakın bir çukur kazıldıktan sonra bu çukurun kenarlarından yukarıya doğru duvar örgüsüne sahip olması gerektiğini, üstünün kubbe oluşturacak şekilde taşlarla bindirme tekniğiyle kapatılması ve bu yapıya girişi sağlayan bir dromosa ihtiyaç olduğunu savunmaktadır. " Tholos " ifadesi yuvarlak anlamına gelmesiyle arkeoloji literatüründe tüm yuvarlak yapılar için kullanılabilmektedir, diğer tüm mezar terimlerine göre arkeolojik literatürde kullanımının çeşitli olması nedeniyle, kesin ve belirgin bir tanımın yapılmasını zorunlu kılmaktadır. Yapılan bu çalışmada Kıta Yunanistan örnekleri ışığında MÖ II. bin yılına ait tholos mezarların mimari gelişimi göz önüne alınarak tholos mezar kavramının mimari anlamda tam olarak neyi karşıladığı ortaya konulmuştur.

- by Nil Dirlik
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- Archaeology, Tholos Tombs

Based on the empirical record of the old excavations by L. Siret, M. Almagro Basch and A. Arribas Palau, this paper discusses the differences among the tombs of Los Millares (Santa Fe de Mondújar, Almería) in terms of their grave goods. Special
attention is paid to stone items, particularly in two respects: First, their provenance areas, a factor that can be significant in cultural terms, and second their scarcity or abundance among the grave goods (although the long use of this necropolis must be taken into account). By using an array of methodological approaches, our ultimate aim is to connect the phenomenology of ritual practice with the social organisation of the communities living in south eastern Iberia during Late Prehistory.

- by JUAN ANTONIO CAMARA SERRANO
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- Social Archaeology, Megaliths (Archaeology), Tholos Tombs, Rare rocks

Στις αρχές τη δεκαετίας του 1950 ο Νικόλαος Βερδελής διεξήγαγε ανασκαφικές έρευνες στην ευρύτερη περιοχή του Πτελεού και των Αγίων Θεοδώρων αποκαλύπτοντας, μεταξύ άλλων, μια σημαντική ομάδα θολωτών τάφων της Μυκηναϊκής εποχής. Η μοναδική παρουσίαση του υλικού των ανασκαφών αυτών, είχε γίνει συνοπτικά από τον ανασκαφέα στα Πρακτικά της Αρχαιολογική Εταιρείας. Πρόσφατα ξεκίνησε μια προσπάθεια συστηματικής μελέτης του συνόλου των ευρημάτων των θολωτών τάφων με στόχο τη δημοσίευση του υλικού. Επιχειρείται μια συνολική αξιολόγηση των διαθέσιμων στοιχείων με βάση την αρχιτεκτονική μορφή των τάφων, την περίοδο χρήσης, τα κτερίσματα και τα έθιμα ταφής. Επιπλέον αξιολογούνται τα στοιχεία πρόσφατων ανασκαφών με σκοπό την ανασύνθεση του πολιτιστικού τοπίου της Θεσσαλίας κατά τη Μυκηναϊκή περίοδο και τη συμβολή της περιοχής του Πτελεού σε αυτό.

- by Dimitra Rousioti
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- Mycenaean era archaeology, Thessaly, Tholos Tombs, Burial Customs

Here we present the results of a micromorphological study conducted on the recently excavated layers in a tholos tomb-Tholos Beta-at the Minoan site at Koumasa, Crete, during the 2013–2014 excavation seasons. This was also a unique opportunity to conduct a detailed research on in situ unexcavated archaeological layers in a Minoan tholos tomb, applying new and innovative sampling methods in order to enable such research in remote locations. This is the first time a micromorphological study has ever been conducted at a Minoan tholos tomb. The micromorphological analysis of the archaeological layers demonstrates that a single and massive burning event of hundreds of disturbed burials took place throughout the structure. This was followed by sprinkling of burnt lime on top of the burnt bone layer. Later cycles of similar burning events are also implied. These results have significant implications on our understanding of Early Minoan mortuary practices and symbolic world.

- by Doron Boness and +1
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- Archaeological Soil Micromorphology, Death and Burial (Archaeology), Minoan Archaeology, Tholos Tombs

Ο θολωτός τάφος στη Μυρσίνη Σητείας ανασκάφηκε κατά το έτος 1959 από τον Ν. Πλάτωνα, τότε Έφορο Αρχαιοτήτων Κρήτης. Πρόκειται για τον πρώτο θολωτό τάφο που εντοπίστηκε στην ανατολική Κρήτη. Με το πέρας της ανασκαφής, o Ν. Πλάτων δημοσίευσε μία προκαταρκτική αναφορά των αποτελεσμάτων της στα Κρητικά Χρονικά (1959). Το 2013, και κατόπιν ευγενούς παραχώρησης της σχετικής άδειας από τον Αν. Καθηγητή Ε. Πλάτωνα, άρχισε η μελέτη των ευρημάτων της ανασκαφής στο πλαίσιο της υπό εξέλιξη διδακτορικής μου διατριβής. Στην παρούσα ανακοίνωση θα παρουσιαστεί η ιστορία της ανασκαφής του θολωτού τάφου της Μυρσίνης, ενταγμένη στην γενικότερη αρχαιολογική έρευνα των προανακτορικών θολωτών τάφων, μέρος από το αρχειακό υλικό του ανασκαφέα, αλλά και δείγματα της σημερινής μελέτης.

- by Katerina Glaraki
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- Death and Burial (Archaeology), Minoan Archaeology, Tholos Tombs

THE LATE BRONZE AGE VILLAGE AT MOKARTA (STRUCTURES AND EXCAVATIONS 1994-97). The central zone of the Mokarta protohistoric settlement includes organic clusters of circular huts, sometimes provided with a secondary annexe, and two-rooms quadrangular buildings, located around concourses. The huts are characterized by an original antechamber, looking a forceps, and by roofing remains adequates to suppose an ogival domed structure, comparable to that of the so-called tholos tombs. The settlement has been violently destroyed, probably at beginnings of the first millennium B.C. The young girl skeleton, found lying down the floor inside a hut, is a tragic evidence of that destruction.

- by Lucia Vagnetti and +1
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- Cretan Bronze Age, Cretan archaeology, Tholos Tombs, Dark Ages
- by Luca Girella
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- Archaeology, Ritual, Culture, Funerary Archaeology

This paper assesses evidence for the transformation of prestige expression in the southwestern Peloponneseduring the early Mycenaean period (late MH–LH II) with special attention on the shift from patterns of elite behaviourobservable throughout the MH period in the region, especially the kind of prestige conveyed by the construction andmaintenance of funerary mounds or tumuli. It focuses on the appearance of novel perceptions of monumental prestigein architecture, such as the early employment of cut masonry, as well as the emergence of various types of built burialspace, and particularly the tholos form (perhaps a local invention) and its role in the dramatic transformation of thefunerary landscape of the region. Such novelties, apparently appearing in the southwestern Peloponnese earlier in comparisonto other mainland regions, need not have a uniform explanation, as they might reflect cultural imports or localdevelopments responding (or even contributing) to the formation of a new socio-political environment. These lastinginnovations shaped basic elements of an emerging monumental prestige vocabulary that had a considerable impact inother regions of the Greek mainland and contributed, especially from LH IIA onwards, to the formation of a supraregional‘Mycenaean’ elite identity. In this regard, the broader social and ideological change that took place throughoutthe earlier part of the Late Bronze Age Aegean culminated in the adoption of what has been termed the wanax ideology,a kingship institution that is established by LH IIIB times, but whose first appearance on the Greek mainland can beplausibly associated with the formative stages of the palatial administrations established there.

- by Carlo Veca and +2
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- Prehistoric Archaeology, Mediterranean prehistory, Mediterranean Studies, Funerary Archaeology

As Crete emerged from the Neolithic, additional people may have arrived from Anatolia and North Africa. Included in this transition is overwhelming evidence of a multiplicitous goddess, who could have been one or many. Unlike Egypt and the Near East, her temples were primarily in nature including groves, mountains, and caves and mostly free of fortification. She was aligned with snakes, birds, bees, lilies, poppies, dolphins, lions, octopus, doves, triangle – hourglass (double-axes * – butterfly – figure 8 shield; labyrinth (labrys-labia)); red ochre; spindles; loom; weaving; shells; vessels with breasts; music; dance; flax; agriculture; caves; sacred bulls (horns of consecration); tholos tombs; pillar cults; as well as the moon and the sun. She was most frequently imaged with agriculture, animals, and women. Mara Keller’s modification of Sir Arthur Evans’ system suggests that this peaceful, goddess centered period that was prior the Mycenaean warriors, be renamed Chthonian after the Earth mother, Chthonia.

- by Eahr Joan
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- Crete, Tholos Tombs, Sacred Groves, Red Ochre

A arquitectura funerária do Calcolítico (2800-2000 a.C.) encontra uma nova expressão na tholos, uma estrutura mais leve e discreta do que os dólmenes do Neolítico. É um tipo de sepulcro com corredor, cuja câmara se apresenta coberta por falsa cúpula, sob tummulus. A sua origem está documentada no sudeste espanhol, tendo-se difundido para ocidente até ao Algarve, e daí para Norte até à Estremadura portuguesa, encontrando uma relação com a progressão dos prospectores e metalurgistas do cobre.

- by Diana Carvalho
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- Copper age, Tholos Tombs, Calcolítico, Tholoi

Aegean scholars have long recognised the pivotal role played by funerary architecture in the process of early state formation that unfolded in the northeast Peloponnese during the Early Mycenaean period. Of particular importance are two burial types, the shaft grave and the tholos tomb, which served as the primary instruments of conspicuous consumption amongst emerging elite in the Argolid prior to the construction of the earliest palaces. While previous attempts to assess the significance of these monuments in the competitive, socio-political landscape of the region have tended to focus on the quantity, quality and diversity of grave offerings, few have utilised the actual process of construction itself as a measure of socio-political complexity. This paper seeks to address this lacuna in the scholarship by approaching the funerary landscape from a perspective of energetics, an approach pioneered by archaeologists working in the Mayan world that calculates the total amount of labour investment required for the construction of a specific monument. This approach injects a new, easily quantifiable yet rarely considered dimension to current discussions of “wealth” and “status” and offers a fresh, new insight into the nature of the socio-political transformations that swept over the Argolid in the Early Mycenaean Period.

Throughout the historical journey of ancient Pharsalus, the public life of the city seems to revolve around Achilles' person. His statues decorate the city, his mother Thetis is worshiped in a sanctuary near the city, so is his trainer Centaur Chiron. The one who immortalized his name in the centuries, Homer had his own statue set in public space, coins are cut depicting the person of hero Achilles, his horse-mounted statue, accompanied by a pedestrian Patroklos, is dedicated to Apollo’s Temple in Delphi. The aristocratic families give names related to Achilles to their children, while its citizens do not cease to exalt in every way their affinity with the Homeric hero.
In this paper we will examine two of these emphatic expressions of affinity of the Pharsalians with Achilles, as depicted in two famous vases of the Archaic period, in the Dinos of Sophilos with the representation of the “Athla epi Patroklo”, found near Pharsalus, at Palaiokastro and dated at 580 - 570 B.C., but also in the kalyx krater of Exekias Style, found in the archaic tomb of Pharsala and dates back to 540-530 BC. Recently, these vases, were included in the ten most important vases of the National Archaeological Museum, when a relevant catalog was compiled.

- by Vasso Noula and +1
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- Thessaly, Tholos Tombs, Tholos, Achilles

The Kamilari project and the LM II-IIIA occupation of Tholos A

Ένας μυκηναϊκός θολωτός τάφος στη Μύκονο. A Mycenaean tholos tomb in Myconos island

- by P. J. Chatzidakis
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- Archaeology, Mycenaean era archaeology, Mycenaean, Mycenaean pottery

Through its remarkable finds the necropolis at Dendra, covering the periods LH IIB–IIIB, offers an eloquent picture of the luxury possessed by the aristocracy up to the final phase of the early Mycenaean period. It is a time when art and crafts shift away from the hitherto Minoan influences to create forms and symbols that are purely Mycenaean, in search of a new identity. Metalwork of an advanced workmanship, testifying to the presence of highly skilled craftsmen, furnished the distinguished deceased in the necropolis.
Craftsmen in the service of the elite seem to have circulated between various areas of the Aegean and Cyprus, forming through their creations common codes between its members. Being one of the few unplundered tholoi of the period, the Dendra tomb gathers most of those features that became fashionable in art and crafts among the early Mycenaean elite. A re-evaluation of the grave goods can therefore provide the impetus for a discussion on the production, manufacture and trade of luxurious items, especially metalwork, at the threshold of the Mycenaean Palatial period.

- by Eleni Konstantinidi-Syvridi
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- Metal vessels, Metalwork, Tholos Tombs, Mycenaean Art

SUMMARY: Lecture 13 continues the discussion of the Middle Minoan to Late Minoan palace centres on Crete, including the eruption of Santorini and slow decline on Crete leading up to the ca. 1450 BC "Mycenaean" domination of Crete --politically? versus culturally? This lecture is designed mainly as an educational resource for college students (i.e., normally posted only on my institution's course website), the public (e.g., people auditing my course), and interested colleagues from other disciplines (to whom I provide copies privately). I am posting it here, both as a broader access, educational tool, and especially to promote the study of this region and its past societies. For further knowledge about this region and period, I refer interested parties to the textbooks and other sources from which the materials were extracted (see syllabus), and/or the bibliographies in these works and my online resource guides (see other files in my academia folders). The lecture summarizes the pertinent materials in the course textbook(s), adding in other data, and furnishing numerous images to clarify information encountered within the textbook(s). Some generic imagery (usually indicated as such) is posted to aid in transmitting various concepts visually, and/or when a specific image remains not located (temporarily). I update and revise such lectures each time, with such elective courses normally being taught once every two years. I try to cover the most current, mainstream views, and usually place summary notes at the end of each lecture alongside some of the key sources used for compiling the ppt. Over time, each lecture is improved, errors rectified, and additional data placed within the lecture. These ppt. lectures take many hours to compile, but they have proved useful to many of my more serious students and I hope they can be of benefit to others as well. My apologies for any errors I may have made, and my liberal usage of educational imagery from professional sources and vetted internet sources. REVISED: March, 2024, some revised formatting, text and images, plus many selected sources.

- by Gregory Mumford
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- Ancient History, Archaeology, Gender Studies, Ancient Indo-European Languages
- by Ioannis Georganas
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- Thessaly, Tholos Tombs, Burial Customs, Pit Graves

SUMMARY: Lecture 14 provides an overview of the Middle Helladic through Late Helladic societies in mainland Greece, with a progression from "Big Men" (tribal societies) to chiefdoms, and eventally to various kingdoms emerging via palace centres (i.e., the Mycenaeans). This lecture is designed mainly as an educational resource for college students (i.e., normally posted only on my institution's course website), the public (e.g., people auditing my course), and interested colleagues from other disciplines (to whom I provide copies privately). I am posting it here, both as a broader access, educational tool, and especially to promote the study of this region and its past societies. For further knowledge about this region and period, I refer interested parties to the textbooks and other sources from which the materials were extracted (see syllabus), and/or the bibliographies in these works and my online resource guides (see other files in my academia folders). The lecture summarizes the pertinent materials in the course textbook(s), adding in other data, and furnishing numerous images to clarify information encountered within the textbook(s). Some generic imagery (usually indicated as such) is posted to aid in transmitting various concepts visually, and/or when a specific image remains not located (temporarily). I update and revise such lectures each time, with such elective courses normally being taught once every two years. I try to cover the most current, mainstream views, and usually place summary notes at the end of each lecture alongside some of the key sources used for compiling the ppt. Over time, each lecture is improved, errors rectified, and additional data placed within the lecture. These ppt. lectures take many hours to compile, but they have proved useful to many of my more serious students and I hope they can be of benefit to others as well. My apologies for any errors I may have made, and my liberal usage of educational imagery from professional sources and vetted internet sources. REVISED: March, 2024, new formatting, text modifications, etc., plus many selected sources.

- by Gregory Mumford
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- Ancient History, Palaeoclimatology, Archaeology, Indo-European Studies

The study of prestige materials is one of the best approaches to obtain information on different aspects of a society, such as internal complexity or, due to the exoticism of many materials, the external relations and mobility of groups. Of those high-value materials, ivory is especially useful due to its restricted provenance and its availability to characterize its source relatively easily, both visually and by spectrometric techniques. Ivory from the Early Minoan period has been mainly identified as hippopotamus ivory, the product of trade with the Syrian area or Egypt. Our recent investigation of 35 ivory seals from the Early Minoan tholoi shows that ivory supply was less homogeneous than previously thought. Four of the seals, from Ayia Triada and Archanes, have been identified as cetaceous ivory, while one amber seal from the tholos of Platanos has also been identified. During the same period (3rd millennium B.C.), the use of cetaceous ivory is only identified in the Iberian Peninsula, where it is possible to identify the presence of similar typologies, such as the anthropomorphic folded-arm figurines and the important number of tholoi present in the south of the Iberian Peninsula. These typologies, together with the sharing of the same prestige material supplier, support the existence of long-range contact around the Mediterranean World at this early date.