Problem solving (original) (raw)

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حل المشكلات استراتيجية تدريسية، تعتمد على تحفيز الطلاب على التحليل والتفكير وطرح البدائل أو الفرضيات واختبارها. فيبدأ المعلم بطرح تساؤل أو مشكلة تمثل تحديا عقليا للطلاب، ويطلب منهم دراسة هذه المشكلة وملاحظة الظواهر المتعلقة بها. وبعد ذلك طرح فرضيات لتفسير أو حل تلك المشكلة. ثم يبدأ الطلاب باختبار تلك البدائل أو الفرضيات للوصول إلى الحل الأمثل. وتندرج هذه الاستراتيجية ضمن المنهج الاستقرائي للتدريس.وهنالك خطوات محددة لحل المشكلات واستراتيجيات أيضا ويوجد علاقة وثيقة

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dbo:abstract حل المشكلات استراتيجية تدريسية، تعتمد على تحفيز الطلاب على التحليل والتفكير وطرح البدائل أو الفرضيات واختبارها. فيبدأ المعلم بطرح تساؤل أو مشكلة تمثل تحديا عقليا للطلاب، ويطلب منهم دراسة هذه المشكلة وملاحظة الظواهر المتعلقة بها. وبعد ذلك طرح فرضيات لتفسير أو حل تلك المشكلة. ثم يبدأ الطلاب باختبار تلك البدائل أو الفرضيات للوصول إلى الحل الأمثل. وتندرج هذه الاستراتيجية ضمن المنهج الاستقرائي للتدريس.وهنالك خطوات محددة لحل المشكلات واستراتيجيات أيضا ويوجد علاقة وثيقة (ar) La resolució de problemes consisteix a fer servir mètodes genèrics o ad hoc, d'una manera ordenada, per tal de trobar solucions als problemes. Algunes de les tècniques per a resoldre problemes s'han desenvolupat i usat en intel·ligència artificial, informàtica, enginyeria, matemàtica, o medicina estan relacionades amb les tècniques de resoldre problemes mentals estudiades en la psicologia. (ca) Problemlösen (Substantiv: Problemlösung) ist eine Schlüsselkompetenz von Personen, die darauf abzielt, erkannte Probleme durch intelligentes Handeln, durch bewusste Denkprozesse zu beseitigen. Grayson H. Wheatleys launige Definition „Problemlösen ist das, was man tut, wenn man nicht weiß, was man tun soll“ verweist auf die Unzufriedenheit mit einem Ist-Zustand als Ausgangspunkt einer Problemlösung, der durch Problemlösen zu einem Soll-Zustand verändert werden soll. Die Abfolge unterschiedlicher Schritte auf dem Weg bezeichnet man als Problemlösungsprozess. Erforscht werden die Grundlagen von der Kognitiven Psychologie, der Kognitionswissenschaft und der Entscheidungstheorie. Karl Duncker definierte 1935/1974: „Ein ‚Problem‘ entsteht z.B. dann, wenn ein Lebewesen ein Ziel hat und nicht ‚weiß‘, wie es dieses Ziel erreichen soll. Wo immer der gegebene Zustand sich nicht durch bloßes Handeln (Ausführen selbstverständlicher Operationen) in den erstrebten Zustand überführen lässt, wird das Denken auf den Plan gerufen. Ihm liegt es ob, ein vermittelndes Handeln allererst zu konzipieren.“ Für die Normalwissenschaft besteht nach Thomas Samuel Kuhn die ständige Aufgabe zum Problemlösen. Wissenschaftler werden angeleitet, eine bestimmte Tradition des Problemlösens weiterzuführen. Auch der Philosoph Karl Raimund Popper (Alles Leben ist Problemlösen, 1994) zeigt den universalen Sinn auf. (de) Η επίλυση προβλημάτων είναι τμήμα της διαδικασίας της σκέψης. Θεωρείται η πλέον περίπλοκη διανοητική λειτουργία και έχει οριστεί ως υψηλού επιπέδου γνωστική διεργασία, η οποία απαιτεί τον χειρισμό και έλεγχο περισσότερο θεμελιωδών και συνηθισμένων ικανοτήτων (Goldstein & Levin, 1987). Λαμβάνει χώρα όταν ένας βιολογικός οργανισμός ή σύστημα τεχνητής νοημοσύνης δεν γνωρίζει πώς να μεταβεί από μία δεδομένη κατάσταση σε μία επιθυμητή κατάσταση στόχο. (el) Problemsolvado konsistas en uzado de ĝenraj aŭ ad hoc metodoj, laŭ ordigita aŭ sistema maniero, por trovi solvojn al problemoj. Kelkaj el la problem-solvaj teknikoj disvolvigis kaj uzis en artefarita inteligenteco, informadiko, inĝenieriko, matematiko, medicino, ktp., estas rilataj al mensaj problem-solvadaj teknikoj studitaj en psikologio. Alia tereno estas la praktika uzado de teknikoj por solvado de problemoj en ĉiutaga vivo de komunumoj, instrusistemo, sansistemo, politiko, internaciaj rilatoj ktp. (eo) La resolución de problemas es la fase que supone la conclusión de un proceso más amplio que tiene como pasos previos la identificación del problema y su . Por problema se entiende un asunto del que se espera una solución que dista de ser obvia a partir del planteamiento inicial. El matemático G. H. Wheatley lo definió de forma ingeniosa: «La resolución de problemas es lo que haces cuando no sabes qué hacer».​ La resolución de problemas reside principalmente en dos áreas: la resolución de problemas matemáticos y la resolución de problemas personales —en los que se presenta algún tipo de obstáculo a su resolución—,​mientras que los fundamentos son estudiados en , ciencia cognitiva y teoría de la decisión. (es) Penyelesaian atau pemecahan masalah adalah usaha mencari penjelasan dan jawaban dari setiap masalah yang dihadapi. Penyelesaian masalah atau problem solving, menurut istilah adalah proses penyelesaian suatu permasalahan atau kejadian melalui berbagai upaya pemilihan dari beberapa alternatif atau opsi yang mendekati kebenaran atau dianggap benar untuk suatu tujuan tertentu. Pemecahan masalah merupakan bagian dari proses berpikir. Sesuai dengan pernyataan Marzano dkk. mengungkapkan bahwa pemecahan masalah adalah salah satu bagian dari proses berpikir yang berupa kemampuan untuk memecahkan persoalan. Terminologi penyelesaian masalah digunakan secara ekstensif dalam psikologi kognitif yakni bertujuan untuk mendeskripsikan "semua bentuk dari kesadaran, pengertian, atau kognisi". Kemampuan penyelesaian masalah ering dianggap merupakan proses paling kompleks di antara semua fungsi kecerdasan. Pemecahan masalah telah didefinisikan sebagai proses kognitif tingkat tinggi yang memerlukan modulasi dan kontrol lebih dari keterampilan-keterampilan dasar. Proses ini terjadi jika suatu makhluk hidup atau sistem kecerdasan buatan tidak mengetahui bagaimana untuk bertindak dari suatu kondisi awal menuju kondisi yang dituju. Keterampilan pemecahan masalah bisa diajarkan kepada orang yang mengidap cedera otak menggunakan langkah-langkah berpikir atau bernalar, tetapi membutuhkan penanganan dan metode khusus. Hal ini tentunya harus disertai dengan motivasi pasien. Dengan demikian, kemampuan dalam menyelesaikan masalah dapat dikembangkan secara sistematis dan bertahap untuk membentuk kemampuan hingga mencapai target yang diharapkan. (in) Problem solving is the process of achieving a goal by overcoming obstacles, a frequent part of most activities. Problems in need of solutions range from simple personal tasks (e.g. how to turn on an appliance) to complex issues in business and technical fields. The former is an example of simple problem solving (SPS) addressing one issue, whereas the latter is complex problem solving (CPS) with multiple interrelated obstacles. Another classification is into well-defined problems with specific obstacles and goals, and ill-defined problems in which the current situation is troublesome but it is not clear what kind of resolution to aim for. Similarly, one may distinguish formal or fact-based problems requiring psychometric intelligence, versus socio-emotional problems which depend on the changeable emotions of individuals or groups, such as tactful behavior, fashion, or gift choices. Solutions require sufficient resources and knowledge to attain the goal. Professionals such as lawyers, doctors, and consultants are largely problem solvers for issues which require technical skills and knowledge beyond general competence. Many businesses have found profitable markets by recognizing a problem and creating a solution: the more widespread and inconvenient the problem, the greater the opportunity to develop a scalable solution. There are many specialized problem-solving techniques and methods in fields such as engineering, business, medicine, mathematics, computer science, philosophy, and social organization. The mental techniques to identify, analyze, and solve problems are studied in psychology and cognitive sciences. Additionally, the mental obstacles preventing people from finding solutions is a widely researched topic: problem solving impediments include confirmation bias, mental set, and functional fixedness. (en) La résolution de problème est le processus d'identification puis de mise en œuvre d'une solution à un problème. (fr) 問題解決（もんだいかいけつ、英: problem solving）とは、問題を解決する、すなわち解を発見することであり、思考の一部分である。すべての知的な機能の中で最も複雑な思考であり、高次元の要求の認識と定義されている。それには、より筋道の立った手順及び基礎的な知識の操作、調節が必要となる。 問題解決は、生命体または人工知能のシステムが、与えられた状態（given state）から、望む目標 (goal) に到達しようとするときに生じる。進み方の知識をもち合わせていない未解決の問題は、新たに道すじを作る（解く）必要がある。 問題の発見と問題の形成を含む大きな問題処理のうちの一部分をなす。 (ja) Il termine problem solving (in italiano letteralmente "risoluzione di un problema") è il processo per raggiungere un obiettivo superando gli ostacoli, una parte frequente della maggior parte delle attività. I problemi che necessitano di soluzioni vanno da semplici compiti personali (ad esempio come accendere un'apparecchiatura) a problemi complessi in ambito tecnico e aziendale. Indica un'attività finalizzata all'analisi e alla risoluzione dei problemi usando tecniche e metodi generici o ad hoc. Il termine può avere un significato leggermente diverso a seconda della disciplina in cui è usato; per esempio in psicologia è un processo mentale, un'attività intellettuale del pensiero umano, mentre in informatica è un processo computerizzato (vedi per esempio intelligenza artificiale e teoria della complessità computazionale). (it) Probleemoplossing is het proces dat moet leiden tot een oplossing voor een probleem. Het is object van onderzoek binnen de cognitieve psychologie. (nl) 문제 해결(問題 解決, problem solving)은 생각의 일부를 형성한다. 모든 지적 기능과 관련하여, 문제 해결은 중요한 기술이나 순서의 제어를 요구하는 높은 순위의 인지 과정으로 정의한다. 유기체나 인공지능 시스템이 바라던 목표 상태에 이르는 방법을 알지 못할 때 "문제 해결"을 하려고 한다. 와 을 포함하는 더 넓은 문제 과정의 일부이다. 문제 해결은 문제에 대한 해결책을 찾기 위한 질서 정연한 방법으로 포괄적이고 즉각적인 방식을 사용하는 것을 말한다. 철학(philosophy), 인공지능(artificial intelligence), 컴퓨터 과학(computer science), 공학(engineering), 수학(mathematics), 의학(medicine), 사회학(societies)에서 개발되고 사용되는 일부 문제 해결 기법은 보통 심리학(psychology)과 인지과학(cognitive science)에서 연구하는 정신적 문제 해결 기법과 연관되어 있다. (ko) A resolução de problemas consiste no uso de métodos, de uma forma ordenada, para encontrar soluções de problemas específicos. Algumas técnicas para resolução de problemas desenvolvidas e utilizadas na inteligência artificial, ciência da computação, engenharia, matemática, medicina etc. estão relacionadas com processos mentais de resolução de problemas estudados no campo da psicologia. Na Matemática, a resolução de problemas é vista como foco principal do ensino. Não faz sentido ensinar/aprender conceitos matemáticos se não for para aplicá-los na resolução de problemas do dia a dia ou problemas de áreas específicas. Entende-se por problema uma situação na qual não se conhece o caminho para a solução. (pt) Problemlösning är den tankeprocess som en intelligent varelse använder för att lösa problem. Problemlösningsprocessen, som betraktas som den mest komplexa intellektuella funktionen, har studerats av psykologer under de senaste hundra åren.[källa behövs] (sv) Реше́ние зада́ч — выполнение действий или мыслительных операций, направленных на достижение цели, заданной в рамках проблемной ситуации — задачи. Является составной частью мышления. С точки зрения когнитивного подхода процесс решения задач является наиболее сложной из всех функций интеллекта и определяется как познавательный процесс более высокого порядка, требующий согласования и управления более элементарными или фундаментальными навыками. (ru) 解决问题或解難是兼具创造性、操作性的思维方式和智性活动。对问题的发现和澄清，经常是解决问题的第一步。許多在人工智慧、工程、數學、醫學中發展及應用的解决问题技巧也和心理學中研究的心理问题解决技术有關。 (zh) Розв'яза́ння зада́ч — це процес виконання дій, або розумових операцій, спрямованих на досягнення мети, яка задана в рамках проблемної ситуації — завдання, також цей процес є складовою частиною мислення. З точки зору когнітивного підходу процес розв'язання задач є найбільш складною зі всіх функцій інтелекту та визначається як когнітивний процес вищого порядку, що вимагає узгодження та управління найпростішими та більш фундаментальними навичками. Деякі методи розв'язання задач, розроблених та використаних в галузі штучного інтелекту, інформатики, інженерії, математики, медицини і т. д. пов'язані з вирішенням проблем психічних методів, що вивчаються в психології. (uk)
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dbp:date September 2018 (en)
dbp:id Sokol (en) Voss (en) Wisconsin (en) Goldstein (en) Hayes (en) Müller (en) Kay (en) Berry (en) Hunt (en) Chase (en) Huber (en) Mayer (en) Hegarty (en) Newell (en) Van (en) Schaub (en) Broadbent (en) Bryson (en) Schoenfeld (en) Hübner (en) Kolb (en) Heppner (en) Beckmann (en) Strauß (en) Ewert (en) Duncker (en) Paradies (en) Hussy (en) Groner (en) Krems (en) Riefer (en) Stanovich (en) Strohschneider (en) Brehmer1993 (en) Brehmer1995 (en) Buchner1995 (en) Dörner1975 (en) Dörner1983 (en) Dörner1985 (en) Dörner1992 (en) Dörner1995 (en) Eyferth (en) Frensch1991 (en) Frensch1995 (en) Funke1991 (en) Funke1993 (en) Funke1995a (en) Funke1995b (en) Kluwe1995 (en) Lesgold (en) Ringelband (en) Sternberg1991 (en) Sternberg1995 (en)
dbp:reason What scenarios? (en)
dbp:reference Funke, J. . Experimental research on complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Schoenfeld, A. H. . Mathematical Problem Solving. Orlando, FL: Academic Press. (en) Hübner, R. . Methoden zur Analyse und Konstruktion von Aufgaben zur kognitiven Steuerung dynamischer Systeme [Methods for the analysis and construction of dynamic system control tasks]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 36, 221-238. (en) Van Lehn, K. . Problem solving and cognitive skill acquisition. In M. I. Posner , Foundations of cognitive science . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. (en) Müller, H. . Komplexes Problemlösen: Reliabilität und Wissen [Complex problem solving: Reliability and knowledge]. Bonn, Germany: Holos. (en) Berry, D. C., & Broadbent, D. E. . Implicit learning in the control of complex systems: A reconsideration of some of the earlier claims. In P.A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Newell, A., & Simon, H. A. . Human problem solving. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. (en) Huber, O. . Complex problem solving as multistage decision making. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Heppner, P. P., & Krauskopf, C. J. . An information-processing approach to personal problem solving. The Counseling Psychologist, 15, 371-447. (en) Groner, M., Groner, R., & Bischof, W. F. . Approaches to heuristics: A historical review. In R. Groner, M. Groner, & W. F. Bischof , Methods of heuristics . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Brehmer, B. . Feedback delays in dynamic decision making. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Hussy, W. . Komplexes Problemlösen - Eine Sackgasse? [Complex problem solving - a dead end?]. Zeitschrift für Experimentelle und Angewandte Psychologie, 32, 55-77. (en) Broadbent, D. E. . Levels, hierarchies, and the locus of control. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 29, 181-201. (en) Bryson, M., Bereiter, C., Scardamalia, M., & Joram, E. . Going beyond the problem as given: Problem solving in expert and novice writers. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Dörner, D. . Verhalten, Denken und Emotionen [Behavior, thinking, and emotions]. In L. H. Eckensberger & E. D. Lantermann , Emotion und Reflexivität . München, Germany: Urban & Schwarzenberg. (en) Eyferth, K., Schömann, M., & Widowski, D. . Der Umgang von Psychologen mit Komplexität [On how psychologists deal with complexity]. Sprache & Kognition, 5, 11-26. (en) Lesgold, A., & Lajoie, S. . Complex problem solving in electronics. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Kolb, S., Petzing, F., & Stumpf, S. . Komplexes Problemlösen: Bestimmung der Problemlösegüte von Probanden mittels Verfahren des Operations Research ? ein interdisziplinärer Ansatz [Complex problem solving: determining the quality of human problem solving by operations research tools - an interdisciplinary approach]. Sprache & Kognition, 11, 115-128. (en) Ewert, P. H., & Lambert, J. F. . Part II: The effect of verbal instructions upon the formation of a concept. Journal of General Psychology, 6, 400-411. (en) Mayer, R. E. . Thinking, problem solving, cognition. Second edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. (en) Riefer, D.M., & Batchelder, W.H. . Multinomial modeling and the measurement of cognitive processes. Psychological Review, 95, 318-339. (en) Stanovich, K. E., & Cunningham, A. E. . Reading as constrained reasoning. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Schaub, H. . Modellierung der Handlungsorganisation. Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber. (en) Funke, J. . Solving complex problems: Human identification and control of complex systems. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Strauß, B. . Konfundierungen beim Komplexen Problemlösen. Zum Einfluß des Anteils der richtigen Lösungen auf das Problemlöseverhalten in komplexen Situationen [Confoundations in complex problem solving. On the influence of the degree of correct solutions on problem solving in complex situations]. Bonn, Germany: Holos. (en) Sternberg, R. J. . Conceptions of expertise in complex problem solving: A comparison of alternative conceptions. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Hunt, E. . Some comments on the study of complexity. In R. J. Sternberg, & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Funke, J. . Microworlds based on linear equation systems: A new approach to complex problem solving and experimental results. In G. Strube & K.-F. Wender , The cognitive psychology of knowledge . Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. (en) Beckmann, J. F., & Guthke, J. . Complex problem solving, intelligence, and learning ability. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Krems, J. F. . Cognitive flexibility and complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Dörner, D. . Wie Menschen eine Welt verbessern wollten [How people wanted to improve the world]. Bild der Wissenschaft, 12, 48-53. (en) Brehmer, B., & Dörner, D. . Experiments with computer-simulated microworlds: Escaping both the narrow straits of the laboratory and the deep blue sea of the field study. Computers in Human Behavior, 9, 171-184. (en) Dörner, D. . Über die Philosophie der Verwendung von Mikrowelten oder "Computerszenarios" in der psychologischen Forschung [On the proper use of microworlds or "computer scenarios" in psychological research]. In H. Gundlach , Psychologische Forschung und Methode: Das Versprechen des Experiments. Festschrift für Werner Traxel . Passau, Germany: Passavia-Universitäts-Verlag. (en) Dörner, D., Kreuzig, H. W., Reither, F., & Stäudel, T. . . Lohhausen. Vom Umgang mit Unbestimmtheit und Komplexität [Lohhausen. On dealing with uncertainty and complexity]. Bern, Switzerland: Hans Huber. (en) Kluwe, R. H. . Single case studies and models of complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Duncker, K. . Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens [The psychology of productive thinking]. Berlin: Julius Springer. (en) Funke, U. . Complex problem solving in personnel selection and training. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Sokol, S. M., & McCloskey, M. . Cognitive mechanisms in calculation. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Dörner, D., & Wearing, A. . Complex problem solving: Toward a (computer-simulated) theory. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Wisconsin Educational Media Association. . "Information literacy: A position paper on information problem-solving." Madison, WI: WEMA Publications. . . (en) Hayes, J. . The complete problem solver. Philadelphia: The Franklin Institute Press. (en) Paradies, M.W., & Unger, L. W. . TapRooT - The System for Root Cause Analysis, Problem Investigation, and Proactive Improvement. Knoxville, TN: System Improvements. (en) Sternberg, R. J., & Frensch, P. A. . . Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Strohschneider, S. . Kein System von Systemen! Kommentar zu dem Aufsatz "Systemmerkmale als Determinanten des Umgangs mit dynamischen Systemen" von Joachim Funke [No system of systems! Reply to the paper "System features as determinants of behavior in dynamic task environments" by Joachim Funke]. Sprache & Kognition, 10, 109-113. (en) Kay, D. S. . Computer interaction: Debugging the problems. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Goldstein F. C., & Levin H. S. . Disorders of reasoning and problem-solving ability. In M. Meier, A. Benton, & L. Diller , Neuropsychological rehabilitation. London: Taylor & Francis Group. (en) Buchner, A. . Theories of complex problem solving. In P. A. Frensch & J. Funke , Complex problem solving: The European Perspective . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Ringelband, O. J., Misiak, C., & Kluwe, R. H. . Mental models and strategies in the control of a complex system. In D. Ackermann, & M. J. Tauber , Mental models and human-computer interaction . Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers. (en) Hegarty, M. . Knowledge and processes in mechanical problem solving. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. . Perception in chess. Cognitive Psychology, 4, 55-81. (en) Voss, J. F., Wolfe, C. R., Lawrence, J. A., & Engle, R. A. . From representation to decision: An analysis of problem solving in international relations. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Frensch, P. A., & Funke, J. . . Complex problem solving: The European Perspective. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en) Frensch, P. A., & Sternberg, R. J. . Skill-related differences in game playing. In R. J. Sternberg & P. A. Frensch , Complex problem solving: Principles and mechanisms . Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. (en)
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rdfs:comment حل المشكلات استراتيجية تدريسية، تعتمد على تحفيز الطلاب على التحليل والتفكير وطرح البدائل أو الفرضيات واختبارها. فيبدأ المعلم بطرح تساؤل أو مشكلة تمثل تحديا عقليا للطلاب، ويطلب منهم دراسة هذه المشكلة وملاحظة الظواهر المتعلقة بها. وبعد ذلك طرح فرضيات لتفسير أو حل تلك المشكلة. ثم يبدأ الطلاب باختبار تلك البدائل أو الفرضيات للوصول إلى الحل الأمثل. وتندرج هذه الاستراتيجية ضمن المنهج الاستقرائي للتدريس.وهنالك خطوات محددة لحل المشكلات واستراتيجيات أيضا ويوجد علاقة وثيقة (ar) La resolució de problemes consisteix a fer servir mètodes genèrics o ad hoc, d'una manera ordenada, per tal de trobar solucions als problemes. Algunes de les tècniques per a resoldre problemes s'han desenvolupat i usat en intel·ligència artificial, informàtica, enginyeria, matemàtica, o medicina estan relacionades amb les tècniques de resoldre problemes mentals estudiades en la psicologia. (ca) Η επίλυση προβλημάτων είναι τμήμα της διαδικασίας της σκέψης. Θεωρείται η πλέον περίπλοκη διανοητική λειτουργία και έχει οριστεί ως υψηλού επιπέδου γνωστική διεργασία, η οποία απαιτεί τον χειρισμό και έλεγχο περισσότερο θεμελιωδών και συνηθισμένων ικανοτήτων (Goldstein & Levin, 1987). Λαμβάνει χώρα όταν ένας βιολογικός οργανισμός ή σύστημα τεχνητής νοημοσύνης δεν γνωρίζει πώς να μεταβεί από μία δεδομένη κατάσταση σε μία επιθυμητή κατάσταση στόχο. (el) Problemsolvado konsistas en uzado de ĝenraj aŭ ad hoc metodoj, laŭ ordigita aŭ sistema maniero, por trovi solvojn al problemoj. Kelkaj el la problem-solvaj teknikoj disvolvigis kaj uzis en artefarita inteligenteco, informadiko, inĝenieriko, matematiko, medicino, ktp., estas rilataj al mensaj problem-solvadaj teknikoj studitaj en psikologio. Alia tereno estas la praktika uzado de teknikoj por solvado de problemoj en ĉiutaga vivo de komunumoj, instrusistemo, sansistemo, politiko, internaciaj rilatoj ktp. (eo) La résolution de problème est le processus d'identification puis de mise en œuvre d'une solution à un problème. (fr) 問題解決（もんだいかいけつ、英: problem solving）とは、問題を解決する、すなわち解を発見することであり、思考の一部分である。すべての知的な機能の中で最も複雑な思考であり、高次元の要求の認識と定義されている。それには、より筋道の立った手順及び基礎的な知識の操作、調節が必要となる。 問題解決は、生命体または人工知能のシステムが、与えられた状態（given state）から、望む目標 (goal) に到達しようとするときに生じる。進み方の知識をもち合わせていない未解決の問題は、新たに道すじを作る（解く）必要がある。 問題の発見と問題の形成を含む大きな問題処理のうちの一部分をなす。 (ja) Probleemoplossing is het proces dat moet leiden tot een oplossing voor een probleem. Het is object van onderzoek binnen de cognitieve psychologie. (nl) 문제 해결(問題 解決, problem solving)은 생각의 일부를 형성한다. 모든 지적 기능과 관련하여, 문제 해결은 중요한 기술이나 순서의 제어를 요구하는 높은 순위의 인지 과정으로 정의한다. 유기체나 인공지능 시스템이 바라던 목표 상태에 이르는 방법을 알지 못할 때 "문제 해결"을 하려고 한다. 와 을 포함하는 더 넓은 문제 과정의 일부이다. 문제 해결은 문제에 대한 해결책을 찾기 위한 질서 정연한 방법으로 포괄적이고 즉각적인 방식을 사용하는 것을 말한다. 철학(philosophy), 인공지능(artificial intelligence), 컴퓨터 과학(computer science), 공학(engineering), 수학(mathematics), 의학(medicine), 사회학(societies)에서 개발되고 사용되는 일부 문제 해결 기법은 보통 심리학(psychology)과 인지과학(cognitive science)에서 연구하는 정신적 문제 해결 기법과 연관되어 있다. (ko) Problemlösning är den tankeprocess som en intelligent varelse använder för att lösa problem. Problemlösningsprocessen, som betraktas som den mest komplexa intellektuella funktionen, har studerats av psykologer under de senaste hundra åren.[källa behövs] (sv) Реше́ние зада́ч — выполнение действий или мыслительных операций, направленных на достижение цели, заданной в рамках проблемной ситуации — задачи. Является составной частью мышления. С точки зрения когнитивного подхода процесс решения задач является наиболее сложной из всех функций интеллекта и определяется как познавательный процесс более высокого порядка, требующий согласования и управления более элементарными или фундаментальными навыками. (ru) 解决问题或解難是兼具创造性、操作性的思维方式和智性活动。对问题的发现和澄清，经常是解决问题的第一步。許多在人工智慧、工程、數學、醫學中發展及應用的解决问题技巧也和心理學中研究的心理问题解决技术有關。 (zh) Розв'яза́ння зада́ч — це процес виконання дій, або розумових операцій, спрямованих на досягнення мети, яка задана в рамках проблемної ситуації — завдання, також цей процес є складовою частиною мислення. З точки зору когнітивного підходу процес розв'язання задач є найбільш складною зі всіх функцій інтелекту та визначається як когнітивний процес вищого порядку, що вимагає узгодження та управління найпростішими та більш фундаментальними навичками. Деякі методи розв'язання задач, розроблених та використаних в галузі штучного інтелекту, інформатики, інженерії, математики, медицини і т. д. пов'язані з вирішенням проблем психічних методів, що вивчаються в психології. (uk) Problemlösen (Substantiv: Problemlösung) ist eine Schlüsselkompetenz von Personen, die darauf abzielt, erkannte Probleme durch intelligentes Handeln, durch bewusste Denkprozesse zu beseitigen. Grayson H. Wheatleys launige Definition „Problemlösen ist das, was man tut, wenn man nicht weiß, was man tun soll“ verweist auf die Unzufriedenheit mit einem Ist-Zustand als Ausgangspunkt einer Problemlösung, der durch Problemlösen zu einem Soll-Zustand verändert werden soll. Die Abfolge unterschiedlicher Schritte auf dem Weg bezeichnet man als Problemlösungsprozess. Erforscht werden die Grundlagen von der Kognitiven Psychologie, der Kognitionswissenschaft und der Entscheidungstheorie. (de) La resolución de problemas es la fase que supone la conclusión de un proceso más amplio que tiene como pasos previos la identificación del problema y su . Por problema se entiende un asunto del que se espera una solución que dista de ser obvia a partir del planteamiento inicial. El matemático G. H. Wheatley lo definió de forma ingeniosa: «La resolución de problemas es lo que haces cuando no sabes qué hacer».​ (es) Problem solving is the process of achieving a goal by overcoming obstacles, a frequent part of most activities. Problems in need of solutions range from simple personal tasks (e.g. how to turn on an appliance) to complex issues in business and technical fields. The former is an example of simple problem solving (SPS) addressing one issue, whereas the latter is complex problem solving (CPS) with multiple interrelated obstacles. Another classification is into well-defined problems with specific obstacles and goals, and ill-defined problems in which the current situation is troublesome but it is not clear what kind of resolution to aim for. Similarly, one may distinguish formal or fact-based problems requiring psychometric intelligence, versus socio-emotional problems which depend on the chan (en) Penyelesaian atau pemecahan masalah adalah usaha mencari penjelasan dan jawaban dari setiap masalah yang dihadapi. Penyelesaian masalah atau problem solving, menurut istilah adalah proses penyelesaian suatu permasalahan atau kejadian melalui berbagai upaya pemilihan dari beberapa alternatif atau opsi yang mendekati kebenaran atau dianggap benar untuk suatu tujuan tertentu. (in) Il termine problem solving (in italiano letteralmente "risoluzione di un problema") è il processo per raggiungere un obiettivo superando gli ostacoli, una parte frequente della maggior parte delle attività. I problemi che necessitano di soluzioni vanno da semplici compiti personali (ad esempio come accendere un'apparecchiatura) a problemi complessi in ambito tecnico e aziendale. (it) A resolução de problemas consiste no uso de métodos, de uma forma ordenada, para encontrar soluções de problemas específicos. Algumas técnicas para resolução de problemas desenvolvidas e utilizadas na inteligência artificial, ciência da computação, engenharia, matemática, medicina etc. estão relacionadas com processos mentais de resolução de problemas estudados no campo da psicologia. (pt)
rdfs:label Problem solving (en) حل المشكلات (ar) Resolució de problemes (ca) Problemlösen (de) Επίλυση προβλημάτων (el) Problemsolvado (eo) Resolución de problemas (es) Résolution de problème (fr) Penyelesaian masalah (in) Problem solving (it) 문제 해결 (ko) 問題解決 (ja) Probleemoplossing (nl) Resolução de problemas (pt) Problemlösning (sv) Решение задач (ru) 解决问题 (zh) Розв'язання задач (uk)
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