CRISPR-Cas immunity in prokaryotes (original) (raw)
Bergh, O., Borsheim, K. Y., Bratbak, G. & Heldal, M. High abundance of viruses found in aquatic environments. Nature340, 467–468 (1989) ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Chibani-Chennoufi, S., Bruttin, A., Dillmann, M. L. & Brussow, H. Phage-host interaction: an ecological perspective. J. Bacteriol.186, 3677–3686 (2004) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
d’Herelle, F. Sur un microbe invisible antagoniste des bacilles dysentériques. C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris165, 373–375 (1917) Google Scholar
Twort, F. W. An investigation on the nature of ultra-microscopic viruses. Lancet186, 1241–1243 (1915) Article Google Scholar
Burnet, F. M. Further observations on the nature of bacterial resistance to bacteriophage. J. Pathol. Bacteriol.32, 349–354 (1929) Article Google Scholar
Barrangou, R. et al. CRISPR provides acquired resistance against viruses in prokaryotes. Science315, 1709–1712 (2007)A study that demonstrated that CRISPR-Cas loci provide acquired immunity against bacteriophages ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Marraffini, L. A. & Sontheimer, E. J. CRISPR interference limits horizontal gene transfer in staphylococci by targeting DNA. Science322, 1843–1845 (2008)A paper showing that CRISPR-Cas loci target DNA molecules in a sequence-specific manner, highlighting for the first time the potential for the technological applications of these systems ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Andersson, A. F. & Banfield, J. F. Virus population dynamics and acquired virus resistance in natural microbial communities. Science320, 1047–1050 (2008)This study revealed the arms race between CRISPR-Cas systems and viruses in their natural habitat ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Deveau, H. et al. Phage response to CRISPR-encoded resistance in Streptococcus thermophilus. J. Bacteriol.190, 1390–1400 (2008) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Childs, L. M., England, W. E., Young, M. J., Weitz, J. S. & Whitaker, R. J. CRISPR-induced distributed immunity in microbial populations. PLoS ONE9, e101710 (2014) ArticleADSPubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Ishino, Y., Shinagawa, H., Makino, K., Amemura, M. & Nakata, A. Nucleotide sequence of the iap gene, responsible for alkaline phosphatase isozyme conversion in Escherichia coli, and identification of the gene product. J. Bacteriol.169, 5429–5433 (1987) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Mojica, F. J., Diez-Villasenor, C., Soria, E. & Juez, G. Biological significance of a family of regularly spaced repeats in the genomes of Archaea, Bacteria and mitochondria. Mol. Microbiol.36, 244–246 (2000)First description of CRISPR loci as a new family of repetitive sequences in prokaryotes ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Tang, T. H. et al. Identification of 86 candidates for small non-messenger RNAs from the archaeon Archaeoglobus fulgidus. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA99, 7536–7541 (2002) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jansen, R., Embden, J. D., Gaastra, W. & Schouls, L. M. Identification of genes that are associated with DNA repeats in prokaryotes. Mol. Microbiol.43, 1565–1575 (2002)First description ofcassequences as a family of genes associated with CRISPR repeats ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Bolotin, A., Quinquis, B., Sorokin, A. & Ehrlich, S. D. Clustered regularly interspaced short palindrome repeats (CRISPRs) have spacers of extrachromosomal origin. Microbiology151, 2551–2561 (2005)This paper, along with references 20 and 21, made the discovery that spacer sequences match viruses and plasmids, and suggested a defence function for CRISPR-Cas systems ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Mojica, F. J., Diez-Villasenor, C., Garcia-Martinez, J. & Soria, E. Intervening sequences of regularly spaced prokaryotic repeats derive from foreign genetic elements. J. Mol. Evol.60, 174–182 (2005) ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Pourcel, C., Salvignol, G. & Vergnaud, G. CRISPR elements in Yersinia pestis acquire new repeats by preferential uptake of bacteriophage DNA, and provide additional tools for evolutionary studies. Microbiology151, 653–663 (2005) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Makarova, K. S., Grishin, N. V., Shabalina, S. A., Wolf, Y. I. & Koonin, E. V. A putative RNA-interference-based immune system in prokaryotes: computational analysis of the predicted enzymatic machinery, functional analogies with eukaryotic RNAi, and hypothetical mechanisms of action. Biol. Direct1, 7 (2006)This work provided the first comprehensive model for the mechanism of CRISPR-Cas immunity ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Brouns, S. J. et al. Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes. Science321, 960–964 (2008)Study demonstrating the central role of crRNA guides and Cas ribonucleoproteins in CRISPR immunity ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Makarova, K. S. et al. Evolution and classification of the CRISPR-Cas systems. Nature Rev. Microbiol.9, 467–477 (2011) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Haurwitz, R. E., Jinek, M., Wiedenheft, B., Zhou, K. & Doudna, J. A. Sequence- and structure-specific RNA processing by a CRISPR endonuclease. Science329, 1355–1358 (2010) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jore, M. M. et al. Structural basis for CRISPR RNA-guided DNA recognition by Cascade. Nature Struct. Mol. Biol.18, 529–536 (2011) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Wiedenheft, B. et al. RNA-guided complex from a bacterial immune system enhances target recognition through seed sequence interactions. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA108, 10092–10097 (2011) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sashital, D. G., Wiedenheft, B. & Doudna, J. A. Mechanism of foreign DNA selection in a bacterial adaptive immune system. Mol. Cell46, 606–615 (2012) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Horvath, P. et al. Diversity, activity, and evolution of CRISPR loci in Streptococcus thermophilus. J. Bacteriol.190, 1401–1412 (2008) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Mojica, F. J., Diez-Villasenor, C., Garcia-Martinez, J. & Almendros, C. Short motif sequences determine the targets of the prokaryotic CRISPR defence system. Microbiology155, 733–740 (2009) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Semenova, E. et al. Interference by clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) RNA is governed by a seed sequence. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA108, 10098–10103 (2011) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sinkunas, T. et al. In vitro reconstitution of Cascade-mediated CRISPR immunity in Streptococcus thermophilus. EMBO J.32, 385–394 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Westra, E. R. et al. CRISPR immunity relies on the consecutive binding and degradation of negatively supercoiled invader DNA by Cascade and Cas3. Mol. Cell46, 595–605 (2012) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Rutkauskas, M. et al. Directional R-loop formation by the CRISPR-Cas surveillance complex cascade provides efficient off-target site rejection. Cell Rephttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2015.01.067 (2015)
Szczelkun, M. D. et al. Direct observation of R-loop formation by single RNA-guided Cas9 and Cascade effector complexes. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA111, 9798–9803 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jackson, R. N. et al. Structural biology. Crystal structure of the CRISPR RNA-guided surveillance complex from Escherichia coli. Science345, 1473–1479 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Mulepati, S., Heroux, A. & Bailey, S. Structural biology. Crystal structure of a CRISPR RNA-guided surveillance complex bound to a ssDNA target. Science345, 1479–1484 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Zhao, H. et al. Crystal structure of the RNA-guided immune surveillance Cascade complex in Escherichia coli. Nature515, 147–150 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Hochstrasser, M. L. et al. CasA mediates Cas3-catalyzed target degradation during CRISPR RNA-guided interference. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA111, 6618–6623 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Huo, Y. et al. Structures of CRISPR Cas3 offer mechanistic insights into Cascade-activated DNA unwinding and degradation. Nature Struct. Mol. Biol.21, 771–777 (2014) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Mulepati, S. & Bailey, S. In vitro reconstitution of an Escherichia coli RNA-guided immune system reveals unidirectional, ATP-dependent degradation of DNA target. J. Biol. Chem.288, 22184–22192 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sinkunas, T. et al. Cas3 is a single-stranded DNA nuclease and ATP-dependent helicase in the CRISPR/Cas immune system. EMBO J.30, 1335–1342 (2011) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sapranauskas, R. et al. The Streptococcus thermophilus CRISPR/Cas system provides immunity in Escherichia coli. Nucleic Acids Res.39, 9275–9282 (2011) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Anders, C., Niewoehner, O., Duerst, A. & Jinek, M. Structural basis of PAM-dependent target DNA recognition by the Cas9 endonuclease. Nature513, 569–573 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Garneau, J. E. et al. The CRISPR/Cas bacterial immune system cleaves bacteriophage and plasmid DNA. Nature468, 67–71 (2010)This work showed that the crRNA-guided DNA targeting by CRISPR-Cas systems results in sequence-specific DNA cleavage ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Gasiunas, G., Barrangou, R., Horvath, P. & Siksnys, V. Cas9-crRNA ribonucleoprotein complex mediates specific DNA cleavage for adaptive immunity in bacteria. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA109, E2579–E2586 (2012) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sternberg, S. H., Redding, S., Jinek, M., Greene, E. C. & Doudna, J. A. DNA interrogation by the CRISPR RNA-guided endonuclease Cas9. Nature507, 62–67 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jiang, W., Bikard, D., Cox, D., Zhang, F. & Marraffini, L. A. RNA-guided editing of bacterial genomes using CRISPR-Cas systems. Nature Biotechnol.31, 233–239 (2013) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Carte, J., Wang, R., Li, H., Terns, R. M. & Terns, M. P. Cas6 is an endoribonuclease that generates guide RNAs for invader defense in prokaryotes. Genes Dev.22, 3489–3496 (2008) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sokolowski, R. D., Graham, S. & White, M. F. Cas6 specificity and CRISPR RNA loading in a complex CRISPR-Cas system. Nucleic Acids Res.42, 6532–6541 (2014) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hatoum-Aslan, A., Maniv, I. & Marraffini, L. A. Mature clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats RNA (crRNA) length is measured by a ruler mechanism anchored at the precursor processing site. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA108, 21218–21222 (2011) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hatoum-Aslan, A., Samai, P., Maniv, I., Jiang, W. & Marraffini, L. A. A ruler protein in a complex for antiviral defense determines the length of small interfering CRISPR RNAs. J. Biol. Chem.288, 27888–27897 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Deng, L., Garrett, R. A., Shah, S. A., Peng, X. & She, Q. A novel interference mechanism by a type IIIB CRISPR-Cmr module in Sulfolobus. Mol. Microbiol.87, 1088–1099 (2013) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Goldberg, G. W., Jiang, W., Bikard, D. & Marraffini, L. A. Conditional tolerance of temperate phages via transcription-dependent CRISPR-Cas targeting. Nature514, 633–637 (2014) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Hale, C. R. et al. RNA-guided RNA cleavage by a CRISPR RNA-Cas protein complex. Cell139, 945–956 (2009)First demonstration that some CRISPR-Cas systems can cleave RNA molecules ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Tamulaitis, G. et al. Programmable RNA shredding by the type III-A CRISPR-Cas system of Streptococcus thermophilus. Mol. Cell56, 506–517 (2014) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Zebec, Z., Manica, A., Zhang, J., White, M. F. & Schleper, C. CRISPR-mediated targeted mRNA degradation in the archaeon Sulfolobus solfataricus. Nucleic Acids Res.42, 5280–5288 (2014) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Peng, W., Feng, M., Feng, X., Liang, Y. X. & She, Q. An archaeal CRISPR type III-B system exhibiting distinctive RNA targeting features and mediating dual RNA and DNA interference. Nucleic Acids Res.43, 406–417 (2014) ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Yosef, I., Goren, M. G. & Qimron, U. Proteins and DNA elements essential for the CRISPR adaptation process in Escherichia coli. Nucleic Acids Res.40, 5569–5576 (2012) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Huang, H., Zheng, G., Jiang, W., Hu, H. & Lu, Y. One-step high-efficiency CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing in Streptomyces. Acta Biochim. Biophys. Sin.47, 231–243 (2015) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Bikard, D. et al. Exploiting CRISPR-Cas nucleases to produce sequence-specific antimicrobials. Nature Biotechnol.32, 1146–1150 (2014) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Citorik, R. J., Mimee, M. & Lu, T. K. Sequence-specific antimicrobials using efficiently delivered RNA-guided nucleases. Nature Biotechnol.32, 1141–1145 (2014) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Gomaa, A. A. et al. Programmable removal of bacterial strains by use of genome-targeting CRISPR-Cas systems. MBio5, e00928–e00913 (2014) ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Díez-Villaseñor, C., Guzman, N. M., Almendros, C., Garcia-Martinez, J. & Mojica, F. J. CRISPR-spacer integration reporter plasmids reveal distinct genuine acquisition specificities among CRISPR-Cas I-E variants of Escherichia coli. RNA Biol.10, 792–802 (2013) ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Nuñez, J. K. et al. Cas1-Cas2 complex formation mediates spacer acquisition during CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity. Nature Struct. Mol. Biol.21, 528–534 (2014) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Levy, A. et al. CRISPR adaptation biases explain preference for acquisition of foreign DNA. Nature520, 505–510 (2015)This paper showed that dsDNA breaks generated during replication trigger spacer acquisition ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
El Karoui, M., Biaudet, V., Schbath, S. & Gruss, A. Characteristics of Chi distribution on different bacterial genomes. Res. Microbiol.150, 579–587 (1999) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Neylon, C., Kralicek, A. V., Hill, T. M. & Dixon, N. E. Replication termination in Escherichia coli: structure and antihelicase activity of the Tus-Ter complex. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.69, 501–526 (2005) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Dillingham, M. S. & Kowalczykowski, S. C. RecBCD enzyme and the repair of double-stranded DNA breaks. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.72, 642–671 (2008) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Smith, G. R. How RecBCD enzyme and Chi promote DNA break repair and recombination: a molecular biologist’s view. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev.76, 217–228 (2012) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Wei, Y., Terns, R. M. & Terns, M. P. Cas9 function and host genome sampling in Type II-A CRISPR-Cas adaptation. Genes Dev.29, 356–361 (2015) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Datsenko, K. A. et al. Molecular memory of prior infections activates the CRISPR/Cas adaptive bacterial immunity system. Nat. Commun.3, 945 (2012)This study showed that pre-existing spacers with partial homology to an invader sequence enhance the acquisition of new spacers ArticleADSPubMedCAS Google Scholar
Swarts, D. C., Mosterd, C., van Passel, M. W. & Brouns, S. J. CRISPR interference directs strand specific spacer acquisition. PLoS ONE7, e35888 (2012) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Goren, M. G., Yosef, I., Auster, O. & Qimron, U. Experimental definition of a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic duplicon in Escherichia coli. J. Mol. Biol.423, 14–16 (2012) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Savitskaya, E., Semenova, E., Dedkov, V., Metlitskaya, A. & Severinov, K. High-throughput analysis of type I-E CRISPR/Cas spacer acquisition in E. coli. RNA Biol.10, 716–725 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Shmakov, S. et al. Pervasive generation of oppositely oriented spacers during CRISPR adaptation. Nucleic Acids Res.42, 5907–5916 (2014) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Arslan, Z., Hermanns, V., Wurm, R., Wagner, R. & Pul, U. Detection and characterization of spacer integration intermediates in type I-E CRISPR-Cas system. Nucleic Acids Res.42, 7884–7893 (2014) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Nuñez, J. K., Lee, A. S., Engelman, A. & Doudna, J. A. Integrase-mediated spacer acquisition during CRISPR-Cas adaptive immunity. Nature519, 193–198 (2015)This study showed the molecular mechanism of spacer integration ArticleADSPubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Thomas, C. M. & Nielsen, K. M. Mechanisms of, and barriers to, horizontal gene transfer between bacteria. Nature Rev. Microbiol.3, 711–721 (2005) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Bikard, D., Hatoum-Aslan, A., Mucida, D. & Marraffini, L. A. CRISPR interference can prevent natural transformation and virulence acquisition during in vivo bacterial infection. Cell Host Microbe12, 177–186 (2012) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Zhang, Y. et al. Processing-independent CRISPR RNAs limit natural transformation in Neisseria meningitidis. Mol. Cell50, 488–503 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Jiang, W. et al. Dealing with the evolutionary downside of CRISPR immunity: bacteria and beneficial plasmids. PLoS Genet.9, e1003844 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Marraffini, L. A. CRISPR-Cas immunity against phages: its effects on the evolution and survival of bacterial pathogens. PLoS Pathog.9, e1003765 (2013) ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Grissa, I., Vergnaud, G. & Pourcel, C. The CRISPRdb database and tools to display CRISPRs and to generate dictionaries of spacers and repeats. BMC Bioinformatics8, 172 (2007) ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralCAS Google Scholar
Gophna, U. et al. No evidence of inhibition of horizontal gene transfer by CRISPR-Cas on evolutionary timescales. ISME J.9, 2021–2027 (2015) ArticlePubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Makarova, K. S., Wolf, Y. I. & Koonin, E. V. The basic building blocks and evolution of CRISPR-cas systems. Biochem. Soc. Trans.41, 1392–1400 (2013) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Bondy-Denomy, J., Pawluk, A., Maxwell, K. L. & Davidson, A. R. Bacteriophage genes that inactivate the CRISPR/Cas bacterial immune system. Nature493, 429–432 (2013) ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Sampson, T. R., Saroj, S. D., Llewellyn, A. C., Tzeng, Y. L. & Weiss, D. S. A. CRISPR/Cas system mediates bacterial innate immune evasion and virulence. Nature497, 254–257 (2013) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Sampson, T. R., Saroj, S. D., Llewellyn, A. C., Tzeng, Y. L. & Weiss, D. S. Corrigendum: A CRISPR/Cas system mediates bacterial innate immune evasion and virulence. Nature501, 262 (2013) ArticleADSCAS Google Scholar
Hale, C. R. et al. Essential features and rational design of CRISPR RNAs that function with the Cas RAMP module complex to cleave RNAs. Mol. Cell45, 292–302 (2012) ArticleCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Liu, M. et al. Reverse transcriptase-mediated tropism switching in Bordetella bacteriophage. Science295, 2091–2094 (2002) ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Zaleski, P., Wojciechowski, M. & Piekarowicz, A. The role of Dam methylation in phase variation of Haemophilus influenzae genes involved in defence against phage infection. Microbiology151, 3361–3369 (2005) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Hanlon, G. W., Denyer, S. P., Olliff, C. J. & Ibrahim, L. J. Reduction in exopolysaccharide viscosity as an aid to bacteriophage penetration through Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms. Appl. Environ. Microbiol.67, 2746–2753 (2001) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Lu, M. J. & Henning, U. Superinfection exclusion by T-even-type coliphages. Trends Microbiol.2, 137–139 (1994) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Molineux, I. J. Host-parasite interactions: recent developments in the genetics of abortive phage infections. New Biol.3, 230–236 (1991) CASPubMed Google Scholar
Parma, D. H. et al. The Rex system of bacteriophage lambda: tolerance and altruistic cell death. Genes Dev.6, 497–510 (1992) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Bingham, R., Ekunwe, S. I., Falk, S., Snyder, L. & Kleanthous, C. The major head protein of bacteriophage T4 binds specifically to elongation factor Tu. J. Biol. Chem.275, 23219–23226 (2000) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Aizenman, E., Engelberg-Kulka, H. & Glaser, G. An Escherichia coli chromosomal “addiction module” regulated by guanosine 3′,5′-bispyrophosphate: a model for programmed bacterial cell death. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA93, 6059–6063 (1996) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Fineran, P. C. et al. The phage abortive infection system, ToxIN, functions as a protein-RNA toxin-antitoxin pair. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA106, 894–899 (2009) ArticleADSCASPubMedPubMed Central Google Scholar
Goldfarb, T. et al. BREX is a novel phage resistance system widespread in microbial genomes. EMBO J.34, 169–183 (2015) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Olovnikov, I., Chan, K., Sachidanandam, R., Newman, D. K. & Aravin, A. A. Bacterial argonaute samples the transcriptome to identify foreign DNA. Mol. Cell51, 594–605 (2013) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar
Labrie, S. J., Samson, J. E. & Moineau, S. Bacteriophage resistance mechanisms. Nature Rev. Microbiol.8, 317–327 (2010) ArticleCAS Google Scholar
Doulatov, S. et al. Tropism switching in Bordetella bacteriophage defines a family of diversity-generating retroelements. Nature431, 476–481 (2004) ArticleADSCASPubMed Google Scholar
Sutherland, I. W., Hughes, K. A., Skillman, L. C. & Tait, K. The interaction of phage and biofilms. FEMS Microbiol. Lett.232, 1–6 (2004) ArticleCASPubMed Google Scholar