Metrology, Weights and Measures Research Papers (original) (raw)

Данная работа является продолжением нескольких более ранних работ автора, посвященных оценке размеров русских путевых мер длины, вёрст. В работе рассматриваются данные «Выписи из Новгородских изгонных книг» о протяженности дорог на территории бывшей Новгородской республики. На основе сопоставления этих данных с оценками протяженностей современных дорог предпринята попытка выявления тех типоразмеров версты, которыми могли пользоваться в Новгороде и его окрестностях в XV…XVII вв.
15.09.2019: статья дополнена разделом о типовых расстояниях между населенными пунктами Новгородчины.

- by Vitali Bartash
- •
- Assyriology, Ancient Near East, Sumerology, Metrology, Weights and Measures

Эта книга посвящена традиционной русской метрологии, конкретно - мерам длины.
Вершки, локти, аршины и сажени... Каковы были их типоразмеры и имена собственные? Где и когда они применялись? Как попали на Русь?
"Система русских саженей": был ли такой феномен в действительности?
Отдельный разговор о верстах: сколько типоразмеров русской версты применялось на практике? Где и когда? Почему?
Ответы на эти и многие другие вопросы вы найдете в этой книге.

Industrial X-ray computed tomography (CT) systems have the ability to map internal and external structures simultaneously in a non-destructive way with high imaging resolution. Recently, there has been an increase of surveys in the field of dimensional metrology referring to CT as a tool for nondestructive dimensional quality control (i.e., traceable measurement and geometrical tolerance verification of industrial components). This increase in surveys runs parallel to the growth of commercial markets for industrial X-ray CT technologies and research institutes as well as metrology-governing bodies' growing interest in creating standarization. Currently, there is a lack of international standards that provide comprehensive procedures and guidelines for dealing with the verification of CT systems' dimensional metrology performance and developing task-specific measurement uncertainty budgets in compliance with the Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement (GUM). To overcome this, some CT manufactures have opted to design their own calibration methods so that they can provide an estimate of maximum permissible error (MPE) for the measurements obtained with systems dedicated to metrology tasks. Essentially, the traceability of the instrument to the meter is provided with an expanded uncertainty upper-bounded by the MPE. In an effort to clarify some of these concepts, this paper gives a brief review of the use of X-ray CT for dimensional metrology with an update on the international attempt to create standards for metrological testing and uncertainty assessment with this technique. An example of in-house calibration is presented, which found deviations in the range-4.4 m to 3.5 m between CT measurements and calibrated references obtained at the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), and this is contrasted to the MPE limits pre-established for CT measurement. A particular emphasis is made in the understanding of the terms " trueness " , " precision " , " accuracy " , and " uncertainty " , so the main metrology-related terminology is revisited with reference to international standards and other guidelines. It is concluded that while in-house calibrations might suffice, international standards are still needed, not only to reach homogeneity in the commercial market but also to avoid misinterpretations. In addition, users and manufacturers from the industry of measuring equipment need to better understand the terms " accuracy " and " uncertainty " , which are often misused and interchanged.

Early modern scholars and statesmen were acutely aware of the need for improved standards of measurement, albeit for differing reasons. The variety of man-made units across territories and histories was, by the seventeenth century, already a sceptical commonplace, and was understood in terms of the mutability of human institutions. The late seventeenth century saw many scholars advance possible candidates for a universal standard. The most promising of these was the use of a seconds pendulum as a standard for length, a project which was actively pursued by the French Académie Royale des Sciences in the 1670s and 1680s, and remained a goal cherished by savants through the eighteenth century. This paper’s first section places the Académie’s early metrological projects in the context of the scholarly community’s ideal of a universal measurement standard, which was often expressed in ways combining political, theological, and humanistic concerns. Melchisédech Thévenot’s ludic proposal that honeycombs might be a length standard is explored as one example. The second section examines the Académie’s attempts to test the seconds pendulum as a universal length standard, by taking the missions to Uraniborg (1671) and to London (1679) as case studies in the practice of metrological work.

Background. Over the last century, scholars have deciphered cuneiform texts on mathematics and astronomy (Neugebauer & Sachs 1955) associated with Mesopotamia's religious architecture, calendars and iconography (Curatorla 2007). However, no systematic investigation of possible astronomical orientation has been made of Mesopotamia's many ziggurats and temples. The availability of geo-referenced/sub-meter resolution satellite imagery now makes such analysis feasible; despite the region's ongoing military conflicts preventing Ground Truth field survey.

- by Vance Tiede
- •
- History of Astronomy, Archaeological GIS, Archaeoastronomy, Ziggurat
- by Lionel Holland
- •
- Metrology, Weights and Measures, Ancient Metrology

From the Early Bronze Age (EBA) Aegean, balance weights are known so far only from two sites in the north-east, from Troy and from Poliochni (Phase Yellow). These weights look very similar to sling-bullets/sling-shots, and they are therefore called sphendonoid weights. Might we not expect to find balance weights also in the southern Aegean, in this age of emerging complexity and the first extensive use of metals, in this so-called “Period of the Corridorhouses” of the later EH II on the mainland?
Typical for Early Bronze Age II on the southern Mainland and the Cyclades are spool-shaped or cylindrical, neatly made objects with polished surfaces. Often they are made from an attractive stone, such as marble, jasper or breccia, but also from spondylus. In this paper I am presenting evidence strongly suggesting that these objects are in fact balance weights: I will therefore refer to them as spool-shaped weights.

- by KANNAN GK
- •
- Metrology, Weights and Measures

So-called control mechanisms as a basis of social power shall be compared in four societies in Europe and Asia which were in coexistence during the middle and later 3rd millennium BC. While in some cases (southern Mesopotamia) we have good indications for social power operating largely from above, such notions cannot easily be adduced from the archaeological record in other regions (Indus Valley, Aegean), in which there were possibly many different levels on which social power was exercised on an everyday basis. Finally, in the fourth region (Bell Beaker Central Europe) it is hard to recognise not only clear signs of social power, but also any possible basis for distinctions in social power. It will be argued that the establishment of control mechanisms was fundamental to achieve institutionalized and long-term inequality in the societies discussed in this article. The adoption of such control mechanisms enabled a group of people (the elite) to regulate and hence dominate resources. Some of the best archaeological indications are writing, the practice of sealing and the invention and standardisation of metrological systems. The open question is how many members of the given society were able to participate in the regulation of power. The archaeological indications often do not imply a strongly hierarchical society, or a society where a single person (king or chief) and/or his clique could dominate. Instead the archaeological record points to flexible and fluctuating power relations. Therefore, it is argued that some early complex societies of the second half of the 3rd millennium BC (like Greece or the Indus Valley) can be better described as heterarchical than hierarchical. For prehistoric Europe it is argued that social power was highly fluid and that no long-term systematization of power relations is traceable before the Iron Age (and even then it is often debatable). Therefore, any claim for the existence of simple or complex chiefdoms in prehistoric Europe (outside the Aegean) during the Copper and Bronze Age seems to be misleading.

Concerning weight-stones of the Late Hallstatt and La Tène Periods
Metrological weights of the Late Hallstatt and the Early La Tène Period are hardly known up to now. Concerning the emergence of the Late La Tène monetary system and the connected metrology no precursors have hitherto been proven. In this paper stone objects with iron lugs, especially from the periods HaD3 and LT A, are discussed as potential balance-weights. Because of their size and mass, they could be termed pound- or mina-weights, not fine weights. This identification is supported by formal analogies with weights with lugs from the Late Bronze Age of Central Europe and Italy and with Iron Age weights with iron lugs from Italy, Spain and England. A clear clue is provided by the Late La Tène hoard from the oppidum Pohanská near Plavecké Podhradie in Moravia, where beside numerous iron tools there were also found the balance-beam of a steelyard together with such a stone weight with iron lug. The equipoised balances with markings on the beam from Hochdorf and Satricum demonstrate that the development of the principle of the steelyard with sliding weight had already begun in the 6th / 5th century B.C. Possibly the lugged weights were employed in iron trading. A definite proof for the use of Late Hallstatt and Early La Tène lugged weights as metrological weights is for the time being still pending.

In this paper, the "Memória sobre Pesos e Medidas", written by José de Abreu Bacelar Chichorro in 1795, is contextualized and a full transcription is given. At that time, the author was the minister leading the reform of administrative and judicial territories in the province of Estremadura. Besides being one of the earliest studies on Portuguese metrology, the Memória contains the first proposal for the adoption of the Decimal Metric System in Portugal. This proposal did not produce immediate effects. However, the plan proposed by a specialized commission nearly two decades later, and approved by the Prince Regent in 1814, matches Chichorro’s proposal in all the essential aspects.

Weights and measures, referred to in Arabic as makāyīl wa mawāzīn, play a crucial role in shaping common commercial interactions and assigning quantifiable value to religious acts including zakāt and prayer. Through cultural transfer, an amalgamation of weights and measures based in Arabic, Greek, Roman-Byzantine, Mesopotamian, and Persian traditions made their way into Islamic legal discourse. Standardization of weights and measures started in the early Islamic period with the Qurʾānic injunction, "Give full measure when you measure, and weigh with a balance that is straight; that is the most fitting and the most advantageous in the final determination" (Qurʾān 17:35). According to a Prophetic tradition, Muḥammad instructed his followers that "Weights are those of the people of Mecca, and measures are those of the people of Medina" (Abū Dāʾūd). This tradition created a standardization benchmark and cemented the mercantile status and religious significance of Mecca and Medina. Importantly, the aforementioned Qurʾānic verse and sunnah tradition became the basis for legal decisions. In the later period of Islamic history, local weights and measures were used by jurists to approximate Sharīʿah values in terms comprehensible in their own contexts. Eventually, the formal standardization of measures of weight, volume, and length were converted into modern metric units. The following is a concise explanation of the weights and measures found in primary Islamic texts.

- by Joe W Bradford
- •
- Islamic Law, Metrology, Weights and Measures, Ancient Weights, Gold Dinar

Vikingtidens vektlodd er blitt fremhevet som sikre vitnesbyrd om handelsvirksomhet (Petersen 1934:42). Tolkningen av vektlodd som redskap for oppveiing av betalingssølv har preget de fleste arbeider om norske vektloddfunn fra vikingtid (som Blindheim ). Personer gravlagt med vektutstyr er ofte beskrevet som handelsmenn, selv i tilfeller med funn av ett enkelt vektlodd. Men er ethvert vektlodd i enhver kontekst uttrykk for handel? Vikingtidens vektloddmateriale (se figur 1, s. 20) kjennetegnes av en betydelig variasjon og synes snarere å reflektere mangfold. I det følgende vil jeg illustrere hvordan fokus på ulik utforming, sammensetning og kontekst kan gi et mer nyansert bilde av vikingtidens vektlodd. Jeg vil vise at man ikke umiddelbart kan betrakte vektlodd som et uttrykk for handel. Vikingtidens vektloddmateriale reflekterer slik jeg ser det, en rekke ulike praktiske gjøremål og forestillinger. 1 Vektlodd som veieredskap Den grunnleggende forutsetningen for å betrakte vektlodd som redskap i handelen, er at de faktisk kan benyttes til oppveiing. I såfall er en skålvekt (se figur 2, s. 21) nødvendig. Vikingtidsgraver med både skålvekt og vektlodd sannsynliggjør at vektloddene ble brukt som veieredskap. Funn hvor den sammen-leggbare skålvekten og vektlodd har vaert pakket inn i et etui eller en skinnpung illustrerer at gjenstandene ble betraktet som et sammenhørende sett. Forsøk med godt bevarte skålvekter fra vikingtid viser at vektutstyret var velegnet til oppveiing (se Sperber 1996). Skal vektutstyret vaere bredt anvendelig, forutsetter det en bevisst sammensatt serie av vektlodd. Som A.W. Brøgger (1921) tidligere har påvist representerer flere gravfunn i det aktuelle materialet slike serier. Brøgger (1921) knyttet det norske vektloddmaterialet fra vikingtid til to ulike vektstandarder. Ifølge Brøgger hadde hovedenheten «øre» fra eldre jernalder og inn i vikingtid en standard på 26,8 gram og den yngre vikingtids øre en standard på 24,59 gram. Den gamle øre var, ifølge Brøgger, inndelt i syv «drachmer»/«denarer», og den yngre i tre «ertoger». Selv velbevarte vektlodd fra vikingtid baerer preg av å ha ligget lenge i jorden. Slik jeg ser det, danner verken Brøggers eller mine studier av vektloddmaterialet grunnlag for å postulere så presise vektstandarder (se Pedersen 2000:74-78). Men en sammenstilling av samtlige godt bevarte vektlodd viser relativt klart avgrensede grupperinger rundt 24, 12 og 8 gram (se figur 3, s. 23), som samsvarer med Brøggers yngre øre. Det er saerlig tomrommet mellom grupperingene som indikerer at de er signifikante. Dekor 19 1 Artikkelen bygger på min hovedfagsoppgave i nordisk arkeologi (Pedersen 2000) og behandler 171 vektlodd funnet før 2000. Nye utgravninger og undersøkelser på Kaupang 2000-2001 har gitt over 380 nye vektlodd. For en foreløpig presentasjon av vektlodd funnet i 2000 se Nicolay nr 83, 2001.

Представлена детальная реконструкция систем мер длины, применявшихся на территории Древней Месопотамии до завоевания ее персами.
(There is detailed reconstruction of the systems of measures of length used on the territory of ancient Mesopotamia until its conquest by the Persians.)
(Das ist detaillierte Rekonstruktion der Systemen der Maßen der Länge, der auf dem Gebiet des Alten Mesopotamien bis zur Eroberung durch die Perser verwendet.)

It can be assumed that, historically, before the unification of eastern Russian lands under the authority of the Moscow principality, Russian system of measures of length had territorial divisions: "north"in Novgorod, and "south"in Kiev... more

This paper is based upon the complete metrology chapter from my book "Early World Coins" published in 2009. It is however a third revised version - with just a new preface added to the version of May 2020. It remains a holistic set of best guesses, concerning how important early metrological systems were linked through time. Copies of the complete 2009 work on paper are still available. Please write to info@earlyworldcoins.com for further details if interested.

- by Robert Tye
- •
- Numismatics, Money and Banking, Monetary history, Metrology, Weights and Measures

"Volume measurement by photogrammetry. Applications for the weighing metrology studies", 1st International Conference on Metrology for Archaeology, Benevento, Italy, October 22-23, 2015, volume 1, p. 197-202.
http://www.metroarcheo.com/files/MetroArcheo2015_Proceedings.pdf
The fieldwork of the weighing metrology studies faces issues concerning the conservation of the artefact. More specifically for the European Protohistory, for which the metrological standards and systems are not identified by the texts, the weights studies leave out the broken ones, difficult to integrate.
The method presented here is intended to remedy this issue proposing a way to calculate the volume of an object with a non-intrusive measurement and permitting later a numerical restitution of the morphology and mass of the original object.

- by Robert Tye
- •
- Metrology, Weights and Measures, Historical Metrology

This book is the first in-depth history of the U.S. Customary System to appear in almost 200 years. In addition to a wealth of historical information difficult to find elsewhere, an appendix provides a uniquely detailed set of data proving that weights of grain can be (and anciently were) used as physical constants, a basis for Bosak's related paper "Canonical Weights of Grain as a Key to Ancient Systems of Weights and Measures." Unlike most current treatments of the Customary System, The Old Measure is intended as a serious scholarly resource rather than just another tract arguing against the metric system, which is acknowledged to have strengths of its own.

- by Jon Bosak
- •
- U.S. history, Measurement and Evaluation, Metrology, Weights and Measures, Metrology

"Приведено описание старинной русской системы мер длины за исключением саженной системы (см. материал "Система русских саженей: мифы и загадки") в динамике ее развития.
25.05.2013 в статью внесены небольшие дополнения и стилистические доработки"
16.01.2014. В статью внесены существенные изменения.
12.10.2014. Сделаны небольшие уточнения по данным. Добавлен раздел про предшествующие исследования русской метрологии. Раздел про версту выделен в отдельную статью (и принципиально переработан).
19.10.2014, 04.11.2014, 24.11.2014, 15.12.2014, 24.02.2015, 13.04.2015, 27.04.2015 - внесены небольшие уточнения и дополнения.
03.06.2015 - доработана тема турецкого влияния на русскую метрологию.
27.07.2015 - небольшие доработки
07.12.2015 - небольшие доработки и уточнения

The vast majority of papers (26) in the current volume stem from the international conference Sandanski and Its Territory during Prehistory, Antiquity and Middle Ages: Current Trends in Archaeological Research, organized by the American Research Center in Sofia, in collaboration with the Archaeological Museum in Sandanski, and held on September 17-20, 2015 in the town of Sandanski. Financial support was provided by the Municipality of Sandanski, the Archaeological Museum in Sandanski and the American Research Center in Sofia.The conference provided a forum for 30 scholars from Bulgaria, Republic of Macedonia, Greece, Austria and USA to discuss their latest research on the archaeology and history of the Sandanski region.The main theme uniting most papers presented during the conference had to do with the attempt to synthesize the available sources for the study of the Roman predecessor of present-day Sandanski – Ulpia Parthicopolis. Using this relatively little known Roman town, nestled in the corner of Southwest Bulgaria, as a case study, the aim was also to provide a holistic view of the complex history of the Sandanski region, from prehistory until the middle ages. In that the current volume builds on, and diverges from, the previously held symposia in Blagoevgrad (September 20-24, 1977) and Sandanski (October 1-4, 2002), which were defined by overarching themes while celebrating particular anniversaries; 2050 and 2075 years since the Slave Revolt led by Spartacus and 2000 years since the establishment of Christianity. Released from the ideological charge of the 20th century scholarship, the current volume faces the daunting task to weave organically the often disparate papers informed by theoretical paradigms of different scholarly traditions.The volume is divided into five sections to provide more visibility of particular topics, but also to articulate better the research results of a wide range of specialists – archaeologists, historians, epigraphers, art historians, numismatists and conservators. Four additional papers (D. Dana [in French], I. Boyanov, D. Garbov, E. Nankov & A. Tsoneva) were solicited after the conference in order to attain a better cohesion of the volume’s structure. Since navigating through the sometimes inconsistent designations of excavated plots within the present-day Sandanski can be a challenge, the volume includes two maps showing the locations of major sites discussed in some of the papers. The reader is invited to refer to them whenever they are in need of topographic information regarding a particular site.

- by Emil Nankov
- •
- Ancient History, Archaeology, Classical Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology

Первую попытку систематизации типоразмеров русских саженей, судя по всему, предпринял в середине XX в. академик Б.А. Рыбаков . Он попытался показать, что ти-поразмеры саженей были связаны друг с другом через схему «вавилона» 1 (см. рис. 1), как квадратные корни чисел от 3 до 8 (см. табл. 1 и рис. 2). 1 «Вавилоны», представляют собой систему прямоугольников с общим центром или стороной. Размеры сторон этих прямоугольников связаны друг с другом определенным образом. Наименование «вавилон» взято Рыбаковым из русских источников XVII в. [5]. 2 Дается по [5]. 3 Размер сажени получается как произведение базового множителя на квадратный корень из числа, указанного в графе «Подкоренной радикал». В качестве базового множителя используется половина мерной сажени -882 мм. Это размер был установлен самим Рыбаковым. Рисунок 2. Система русских саженей по академику Б.А. Рыбакову. Геометрическое представление [5]

- by Lionel Holland
- •
- Metrology, Weights and Measures, Ancient Metrology

The evolution of the legal systems of weights and capacity measures used in Portugal from the end of the 11th century to the 16th century is described. Unlike previous literature on this subject, this paper pays particular attention to studying the structure of the ancient Portuguese metrological systems and the equivalences of the ancient units to the current international system of units.

La méthode des moindres carrés généralisés (GLS) estime la droite d'étalonnage en tenant compte de l'incertitude associée aux variables, de l'hétéroscédasticité et des corrélations. Mais l'efficacité des GLS requiert une bonne connaissance de la méthode elle-même et du processus d'étalonnage. Cet article précise les caractéristiques de la fonction d'étalonnage et introduit le « modèle à erreurs sur les variables » plus représentatif du contexte. La méthode GLS est présentée selon différents scénarios d'incertitude en considérant les trois phases de l'estimation : modélisation, évaluation et validation. La propagation de l'incertitude des variables aux coefficients de la droite est discutée. Puis, le résultat de mesure est calculé avec la droite estimée, en mode direct et en mode inverse. Son incertitude est donnée en distinguant la valeur vraie ou moyenne sans incertitude et une valeur mesurée ou individuelle avec incertitude. Deux exemples sont analysés. Les incertitudes des variables influencent peu la valeur des coefficients de la droite et du résultat. En revanche, les incertitudes associées sont très affectées. MOTS CLÉS : MOINDRES CARRÉS GÉNÉRALISÉS, MODÈLE À ERREURS SUR LES VARIABLES, DROITE D'ÉTALONNAGE, DROITE AVEC INCERTITUDE SUR LES DEUX VARIABLES.

L’edizione del brebion della Metropoli di Reggio, curata da
A. Guillou, nel quale tutte le cifre sono conteggiate in
tarì aurei, ha portato storici e numismatici a considerare
come dato acquisito la circolazione di moneta araba
aurea nella Calabria bizantina. Analizzando tutti i dati a
nostra disposizione, cercheremo di dimostrare come la
supposta circolazione di moneta araba trova come unico
sostegno proprio la menzione di tarì nel brebion, mentre
mancano esemplari rinvenuti nella regione con coordinate
di ritrovamento certe.

- by Daniele Castrizio
- •
- Numismatics, Byzantine Studies, Late Antiquity, Byzantine History

Discussion of a probable 10th c. BC-lead alloy weight found in close association with one of the inhumations in the main burial pit at Cliffs End. Although no morphological comparisons have been found, a possible link to weight systems in... more

Исследование связи мер длины разных народов с размерами Земли

An assessment of the literary, material, and excavation evidence for dating the standard of Athenian commercial metrology of the fifth into the fourth centuries BC. This evidence dates the origin of this uniquely Athenian standard to the... more

In the Early Middle Ages, with the rise of the Muslim Caliphate trade and exchange expanded on a global scale. Both archaeological and numismatic sources testify to the development of a supra-regional bullion silver economy in Eurasia, which copied monetary standards and practices current in the commerce of the Islamic world. However, we still know little about the monetary habitus in long distance networks of the Early Viking Age (c. 800-950 AD). In this paper, various aspects of measurement, numeracy and units are presented and discussed. It is argued that Viking Age merchants had a profound knowledge of Islamic coinages and their monetary value. They could probably recognise Cufic script and were able to distinguish between dirhams of different emissions by recognising their design, the presence or absence of Cufic letters or signs. Based on observations from an Ethiopian gold merchants weighing gear it is argued that coins and seeds together were used as a means for calibration. Similar practices could also explain the spread and acceptance of weight standards such as the Islamic miṯqāl.

- by Michael L Bates
- •
- Numismatics, Monetary history, Egypt, Islamic Numismatics

Weighing devices are the earliest material correlates of the rational quantification of economic value, and they yield great potential in the study of trade in pre-literate societies. However, the knowledge of European Bronze Age metrology is still underdeveloped in comparison to Eastern Mediterranean regions, mostly due to the lack of a proper scientific debate. This paper introduces a theoretical and methodological framework for the study of standard weight-systems in pre-literate societies, and tests it on a large sample of potential balance weights distributed between Southern Italy and Central Europe during the Bronze Age (second–early first millennium bc). A set of experimental expectations is defined on the basis of comparisons with ancient texts, archaeological cases and modern behaviour. Concurrent typological, use-wear, statistical and contextual analyses allow to cross-check the evidence against the expectations, and to validate the balance-weight hypothesis for the sample under analysis. The paper urges a reappraisal of an independent weight metrology for Bronze Age Europe, based on adequate methodologies and a critical perspective.

Man kann angenommen werden, dass, historisch gesehen, vor der Vereinigung der östlichen russischen Länder unter der Leitung des Moskauer Fürstentum russische System von Maßnahmen der Länge territorialen Gliederung hatte: «nördliche», in... more

Pesi e misure: storia e archeologia di sistemi eterogenei enrico giannichedda «Libbre 100 sottile di Vinegia fanno in Parigi libbre 62 1 ⁄ 2, d'once 15 per libbra ... Libbre 530 di Genova fanno in Parigi carica 1, ch'è in Parigi libbre 350 d'once 15 per libbra...» (Francesco Balducci Pegolotti, circa 1340). «Poiché in tutti i ducati, marchesati, contee, viscontee, baronie, castellanie, terre, giurisdizioni del nostro regno ci sono pesi e misure per lo più con nomi, appellativi e grandezze diverse...(Decreto di Enrico II, Parigi 1557, citato in W. Kula, Le misure e gli uomini dall'antichità a oggi, Bari 1987, p. 178).

- by Enrico Giannichedda
- •
- Archaeology, History of Science, Medieval Archaeology, Archeologia