Lifesaving Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

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- History, Cultural History, Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Early Modern History

Context: According to the 4W model one of the key factors of drowning is the casualty characteristics (Avramidis, Butterly, Llewellyn, 2007). The aim of the study was to identify if risk taking behaviour can lead to drowning after engagement in swimming and non-aquatic activities. Methods: Qualitative content analysis (QSR, 2002) of drowning incident videos (n = 41), and semi-structured interviews of those involved in drowning incidents (n = 34) followed by the measurement of frequencies and Boolean search with matrix intersection was conducted. Results/Discussion: Risk-taking behaviour was the cause of drowning in relatively few aquatic accidents (11, 15%). Sensation seekers were willing to take risks that involved psychological anxiety (7, 9%) for satisfying their need (e.g. illegal bungee jump and parachute jump from high bridges etc.) (Franken et al., 1992). Learning Outcomes: 1. People behave riskily while engaged in activities perceived as controllable by themselves and recognized as risky by others. 2. High sensation seekers are unrealistically optimistic, take risks voluntarily for satisfying their needs, view the world as less threatening and fearful, expect that the outcome would be less negative, and are likely to report a lifetime history of antisocial behaviour. 3. Risk taking behaviour can lead to drowning.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Risk-taking, Drowning, Aquatics

The art of saving lives. A 17th-century Lusatian Pastor and his legacy
The origins of the first German-speaking treatise on lifesaving (Kurtzer bericht und handgrieff) are widely obscured. Our knowledge about its author is vague and resembles rather a blurred picture than plain facts. Recent research has assumed either a Swiss or a Bavarian priest named Albinus to have published a short treatise on the rescue of drowned casualties in German either in 1670 or 1675.
In this article, however, we argue that Sebastian Albinus (1558–1631) was a Lusatian Pastor, who had already published this treatise in Zittau in 1620. Above all, this publication resulted from a dispute between Albinus and his parishioners over the controversial issue, whether saving casualties was an obligation deriving from Christian charity or not. Furthermore, Albinus had gained practical experience in saving nearly drowned people, in particular children, at first hand by his mother. But he had to learn, painfully, that those experiences and knowledge were contested and sometimes even considered blasphemous.
Differing in content, length and shape the first publication of this treatise is widely unknown, since apparently only one copy still exists. Reading both Albinus’ own introduction and two dedications from a local physician and a teacher carefully, reveals much about the author, his family and social background as well as his motivation. These parts were left in the second edition from 1675, for which the place of printing is unknown as well. Moreover, this article analyses some of the rescue techniques suggested by Albinus and pre-modern physicians. Here we equally examine Albinus’ reading of early modern Latin medical textbooks.

- by Alexander Kaestner and +1
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Early Modern History, History of Medicine, Upper Lusatia (Germany)

We conducted an extensive literature review using the search terms of “drowning” and “hypothermia” to discover the major factors related to differences in survival rate especially associated with hypothermic effects. Studies indicated that some differences in drowning survival could be identified associated with age, sex, length of submersion, reduced core body temperature, and quality of cardiopulmonary respiratory care. The variability of results associated with the large number of studies prevented us from making any recommendations about whether hypothermia can improve survival among either children or adults.

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been hypothesized to be related to exposure to an extreme traumatic situation (life threatening or a serious injury) transforming capable (before the emergency) rescuers or victims to psychological wrecks afterwards. An extensive literature review was conducted to describe the problem and discover the recommended treatment for those affected by PTSD after an emergency episode in order to have a better chance of rehabilitation. Results confirmed that, PTSD is a serious and well researched anxiety disorder. It appears not only to those survived or witnessed an emergency but also to those who acted as lifesavers. The scientific evidence for the existence of PTSD symptoms in aquatics is very limited, and therefore, further research is required to establish whether PTSD symptoms have been neglected or unreported. A number of actions and measures in terms of prevention and treatment are suggested to be taken by affected rescuers, victims and rescue organizations while dealing with this disorder to avoid possible negative sequelae.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, PTSD, Drowning

The aim of this educational review article was to identify cases of Hollywood stars who have been involved in aquatics. A literature search was conducted using the terms ‘drowning’, ‘Hollywood’, ‘actor’, rescue’, ‘aquatics’, ‘swimming’ and ‘lifeguard’. It was found that several Hollywood film stars (n=33; males=20, females=13) have worked as lifeguards (n=12), performed lifeguard rescues (n=2), or lifesaving rescues (n=4), were aquatics athletes (n=6), or suffered drowning-related incidents (n=9). A brief overview of those actors and their involvement in aquatics is presented.

RESUMO.
O afogamento constitui uma das principais causas de morte no mundo. Em Moçambique, onde de acordo com o Serviço Nacional de Salvação Pública (SENSAP) foram registados 192 afogamentos nas praias marítimas, entre 2015 e 2018. A observação participante na praia de Costa do Sol, objeto de estudo desta pesquisa, permitiu aferir que os fatores de risco de ocorrência de afogamento incluem o consumo de bebidas alcoólicas, a afluência de banhistas crianças não acompanhadas por adultos, a ausência de educação balnear na escola, práticas religiosas, a deficiente sinalização balnear, a fraca vigilância balnear assegurada por nadadores salvadores, banhistas sem noções de natação, covas, bancos de areia, correntes e ondas. Confrontados tais riscos, com a literatura pertinente, entrevistados vários utentes desta praia, responsáveis de algumas instituições e profissionais relevantes no sistema de segurança balnear, cristalizou-se a relevância da presente pesquisa, dado que todos os fatores que concorrem para afogamentos não encontram oposição robusta de segurança balnear por parte do poder público ou privado. Assim, urge a necessidade de se estabelecer políticas públicas de segurança balnear, com vista a redução de riscos de afogamentos, nesta praia, considerando igualmente, as épocas do ano, a batimetria, as características dos ventos e marés.
Palavras-chave: Gestão de Riscos; Afogamentos; Salvamento Aquático;
Educação preventiva; Moçambique.

- by Miguel Ysrrael Ramírez Sánchez and +1
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Risk Management, Educación, Drowning

The importance of thermoregulation lies in the fact that temperature as a physical parameter is crucial both for cellular function and humans' survival. The thermoregulatory system correlates not only with the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal system but also with neural activity and pain sensation. Whole-body water immersion can alter both the core and skin temperature and induce physiological changes. Therefore, in Balneology, water immersion ranges between 20-42°C covered a wide range of therapeutic applications. We aim to investigate thermoregulatory and cardiovascular responses in carbonated (CO₂) baths versus plain water baths at different temperatures. This research's base was the scoping literature method. A standard literary search was performed on PubMed and Google Scholar. The words “Immersion” “Bath” was used either as solely searched terms and MeSH terms or in combination with the text words “thermoregulatory response” “warm” “thermoneutral”. The inclusion criteria were: water immersion from the diaphragm level up to the xiphoid sternum in humans either in plain or thermal water (artificial or natural), total body fat 20-30%, or body mass index 18.5-24.9kg/m², ambient temperature 24-30°C and 40-60% relative humidity. Exclusion criteria set individuals with health problems and contrast baths. 12 articles were considered eligible for inclusion. The literature findings showed that the immersion in plain water at 20-28°C significantly decreased the core temperature in a gradual manner, while at 29-37°C, no changes were observed. By contrast, CO₂ baths at temperatures 30-35°C caused a statistically significant drop in core temperature with parallel a significant elevation of skin blood flow. Nonetheless, the core temperature increased significantly above 38°C water temperature from the 5th minute and could reach 39.5°C in the second immersion hour with a parallel elevation of sweat rate and blood circulation. However, at a greater level in CO₂ baths, possibly due to higher heat conductance, extreme vasodilatation, and prevailed function of warm thermoreceptors. Besides, skin temperature did not differed between the two types of baths at different temperatures. In conclusion, the thermoregulatory-mechanical responses may be influenced by chemical water compositions as in the case of CO₂ baths, but further investigation is needed due to limited experimental work. The review of the literature suggests that carbonated water baths at 30-35°C may attenuate the heat stress on the cardiovascular system, and consequently that in turn may affect the therapeutic properties of hydrotherapy. It is essential to understand the thermal load during Balneotherapy to determine the aquatic's session duration to be safe and beneficial.

- by Maria Ntoumani
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- Thermoregulation, Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Cardiovascular, Hydrotherapy

Legislation dealing with lifeguards can have a major impact on all aspects of aquatic safety including employers and employees, certifying organizations, local authorities and swimmers. The purpose of the present paper was to critically evaluate legislation in Greece related to lifeguarding. Results show that although lifeguarding is mandatory by law, changes need to be made focused on training and examination standards, the name and meaning of the lifeguard qualification, and the establishment and operation of lifeguard agencies and aquatic facilities.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Leadership, Drowning, Lifeguard Education

The purpose of this article was to describe the prevalence of drowning as a cause of death in the mythology of ancient Greek history and under what circumstances it occurred. From all the names and references (n= 40,000) recorded in a database of the ancient and mythological Greek literature (Devouros, 2007), the number of drowning incidents was identified (n=37, 17 males (45.94%), 6 females (16.22%), and 14 reports of multiple casualties (37.84%). The review of the database confirmed that drowning was attributed to ‘acts of demigod’ but was more often due to human accidental submersion or to ‘acts of God’ such as disasters like heavy rain, flooding, or tsunamis. Based on this review, the causes and rates of drowning (down from 57.5 to 2.69 per 100,000 population) may have changed through the centuries, but death by drowning remains a major health problem in Greece.

This article aims to identify swimming-related artwork from Paleolithic times up to the present day and to assess whether possible use of art could act as an aid to teaching. An art search obtained 50 paintings and sculptures. Results confirmed that artists have bestowed a wealth of related artwork on the world of aquatics. Depictions of people swimming competitively or recreationally, diving, bathing, working and fighting were found in Egypt, Greece, Persia, Italy, Spain, the USA, Japan and China. Depending on the particular society, the ability to swim indicated either a high or low socio-economic status. In some depictions, knowledge of swimming was accompanied by the ability to dive from high cliffs or into deep water, to hold one’s breath underwater, and to show physical endurance. A variety of swimming strokes were depicted throughout history in art. Various types of swimwear, or nude swimming, were evident in different societies.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Art History, Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Swimming

This article analyses the water, sanitation and hygiene situation in slum households and compares it with the non-slum urban households using data from the 2011 Census. It argues for a shift from the mere water supply coverage to an emphasis on quality water distribution. Intermittent water supply coupled with poor sanitation contributes to higher health risks. Promoting point-of-use water treatment and basic hygiene practices on safe handling and storage of water are important preventive health interventions. This article advocates for a shift from availability of infrastructure to delivery of service-level outcomes.

- by Biraja Kabi Satapathy
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Water, Water quality, Public Health

Activities in the water can bring enjoyment for everyone. However, It is important to gain knowledge to respect the aquatic environment & must be aware about the rules around the water as well as the risk that are presented to this kind of environment, to guarantee that those around are safe. So knowing about water safety prevents you in dangers and aquatic incidents, & how to act in an emergency.

- by Kevin Flores
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Water, Swimming, Safety

Drowning raises some specific questions. First of all, the corpse can be not found, and the drowned person is often a " dead man without a grave", a wandering person, even a potential ghost. Besides, even when the body is found, is the death necessarily due to the flood, or was it previous to the dive of the body in the liquid? And how cut between accident and deliberate death? If certain questions connected to the drowning are always of current events, some others seem more specific of societies of the past. The crossing of sources brings to light the various problems which drowning and missing corpses raised in the Middle Ages, as technical as practical, legal, or religious.The body of the drowned persons, besides, aroused early questioning on the causality, and was of use in particular as support to theoretical debates on the internal functioning of the body, for example in Salerno. This paper tries to present some distinctive features of the drowning, and to highlight certain peculiarities of the Middle Ages as regards the treatment, the representation or the apprehension of this kind of death.

The aim of the present study was to develop a conceptual model of drowning incidents. Qualitative content analysis (QSR, 2002) of drowning incident videos (n = 41), and semi-structured interviews of those involved in drowning incidents (n = 34) followed by the measurement of frequencies and Boolean search with matrix intersection was conducted. Results confirmed that when there is human activity in, above, or around an aquatic environment, a drowning incident may occur to whomever, wherever, and under whatever circumstances may exist. Factors that determined drowning outcome were, in order of importance, rescuer characteristics (Who1), casualty characteristics (Who2), location (Wherever), and general circumstances (Whatever). The interaction of the rescuer with the casualty largely determines the outcome of drowning. The 4W model is a promising tool in lifesaving and lifeguarding.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Emergency Management, Drowning, Lifeguard

Aim: The purpose of this article was to describe the prevalence of drowning as a cause of death in the mythology of ancient Greek history and under what circumstances it occurred. Method: From all the names and references (n= 40,000) recorded in a database of the ancient and mythological Greek literature (Devouros, 2007), a criterion sampling method (Patton, 1990), based on two criteria (first cases that mentioned drowning were identified and second, a subset of those cases that specifically referred to human drowning was compiled) identified a number of drowning incidents (n=37), 17 males (45.94%), 6 females, (16.22%), and 14 reports of multiple casualties (37.84%). Discussion: The review of the database confirmed that drowning was attributed to ‘acts of demigod’ but was more often due to human initiative or to ‘acts of God’ such as disasters like heavy rain, flooding, or tsunamis. Results: Based on this review, the male: female ratio of this study was 3:1. In Greece today the average is 2.69 per 100,0000 population. Although this number is much lower than the rate in ancient Greece and mythology (57.5 per 100,000 population), however it is still double the average rate in the EU (1.27 per 100,000 population) (World Health Organization, 2002).

Drowning is a universal and leading cause of accidental death worldwide (Avramidis, 2003a; Bierens, Knape, & Gelissen, 2002). Some people believe that the solution to preventing drowning is to have lifeguards assigned to all areas where people can swim or enter the water. Several decades ago, some people believed that a key to improved water safety was at hand, merely through the hiring of lifeguards. Eventually, most aquatic agencies realized that another key to improved water safety is the careful training and supervision of these lifeguards (Griffiths, 2000). In fact, this author argues that we also need a “head” or “lead”lifeguard, who will “guard,” or supervise, the lifeguards.

The purpose of this paper is to reflect on the “commitment to action” designed by ministers of education, which act as stepping stones during implementation of the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians. The reflection conceptualises what these goals look like in practice within the Health and Physical Education (HPE) key learning area. “Swimming and water safety” for both pre-service teachers and children in Primary schools was implemented, which in hindsight provided a win-win situation. Furthermore, a framework enabling sustainable swimming education within the Gippsland rural community was developed. There were barriers to be overcome and amendments identified for possible future improvements; however, the project is strongly supported by the Department of Education and Early Childhood Development (DEECD)
Discussion Paper “A Tertiary Education Plan for Gippsland, Victoria”. The pathway involving collaboration of various stakeholders has begun, a process that can now be reflected upon, reassessed, amendments made and relationships strengthened for the sustainability of swimming and water safety within local rural primary schools in the Gippsland region.

Data gathered indicate that reductions in annual Australian drowning fatalities for not only children, but people of all ages, have hit a plateau, and if anything, figures suggest that fatal drownings in recent years are on the increase. It is alarm- ing that figures are not falling despite the many well-developed swimming and water safety education programs available. The number of drowning deaths in Australia is regarded by governing bodies as far too many, hence it is proposed that the necessary changes required to further reduce drowning may involve teachers within primary schools being used more efficiently in the educational process. This paper concludes that by implementing swimming and water safety with conviction into the school curriculum, all students will become more aware of drowning risk behaviors, thus successfully decreasing drowning fatalities in both the short and long terms.

What do pigeons, dolphins, horses and dogs have in common with a rescuer? They have all been used as partners in rescuing drowning casualties. The present review article summarizes how they contribute to a rescue, as well as describes some historical incidents in which animals saved human lives. Animals rescue humans either as a result of training that they have received, or they are driven by pure instinct ((Abstract of the authors)

Tanulmányunkban a nemzetközi szakirodalom segítségével járjuk körbe az úszástudás fogalmát. A meghatározásokat követően figyelembe véve korunk paradigmáját, a kompetencia3
alapú iskolai úszásoktatást vizsgáljuk. Korábbi történeti-összehasonlító elemzésünk során öszszegyűjtött adatok alapján vetjük össze 1918-tól 2020-ig bezárólag a köznevelésben megjelent
elemi- és polgári iskolákra vonatkozó utasításokat, tanterveket, az általános iskolák tantervi
tervezeteit és alkalmazott tanterveit. Az elemzés során a vizsgált dokumentumokat a szerint csoportosítjuk, hogy a vízbiztonság és úszáskompetenciákból melyek jelentek meg pontosan. Eredményként bemutatjuk mely tantervek épültek leginkább a legfontosabb kompetenciákra, és hazánkban milyen irányban fejlődik az iskolai úszásoktatás.

- by Zsófia Kovács
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Physical Education, Hungary, Curricula

This study aimed to suggest practical and teaching applications of the 4W model of drowning. A major literature review of quantitative research was undertaken to identify potential risk factors of drowning, qualitative content analysis was used to analyze pub-licly available drowning incident videos (n = 41, M = 345.0, SD = 2.8), and 34 individu-als involved in drowning incidents were interviewed (30 males age 16–65 years, M = 28.4, SD = 11.3; 4 female age 19–65 years, M = 37.5, SD = 19.5). Results confirmed that test criteria such as a 100 m run–50 m swim–100 m run for open water and a 50 m run–20 m swim–50 m run for pool/water parks could be more useful for assessing speed com-bined with an ‘early approach’ to the victim than any currently in operation. The ‘early approach’ criterion would be established to test the ability of the lifeguard to be able to remain alert, to have good vision, to recognize the casualty’s instinctive drowning re-sponse, to initiate a rescue ignoring the bystander’s lack of response and to reassure the drowning victim. Drownings and their rescue interventions should be perceived as 3-dimensional problems.

The main criticism of the validity of the diatom test for the diagnosis of drowning is based on the potential ante-and post-mortem penetration of diatoms and the finding of diatoms in bodies of non-drowned human beings. However, qualitative and quantitative studies on diatoms in organs of the non-drowned have yielded both conflicting and contradictory results. In the present study, we have analysed under standardised methods the diatom content in several organs of 14 non-drowned human bodies. Overall, only 9 diatoms (6 entire, 3 fragmented) were disclosed in 6 of the 14 non-drowned bodies. Each of these 6 cadavers had only a single ''positive'' organ. Six diatoms were found in the bone marrow, 2 in the lung, and one in the pleural liquid. No diatoms were recovered from the brain, liver, kidney, or blood samples of any of these 14 bodies. Moreover, in five additional cadavers, whose lungs were injected, prior autopsy, with a 3.5 L solution containing a bi-cellulate diatom culture (Thalassiosira baltica, Thalassiosira levanderi) via tracheostomy, a few diatoms appeared in the pleural cavity and in the blood from the left heart chamber, but none in any other internal organs investigated. The results of the presented study demonstrate that the issue of the false-positive diatom test should not be a logical impediment to the performance of the diatom method. However, strict and standardized protocols aimed at avoiding contamination during sample preparation must be used, appropriate separation values set and taxonomic analysis of all diatoms performed.

- by Arto Miettinen
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Forensic Pathology, Diatoms, Finland

When there is human activity in, above, or around an aquatic environment, a drowning incident may occur due to rescuer characteristics, casualty characteristics, location, and general circumstances (Avramidis, Butterly & Llewellyn, 2007). The aim of the present study was to identify where people drown. Qualitative content analysis was utilized to analyze drowning incident videos (n = 41), and semi-structured interviews of those involved in drowning incidents (n = 34). Drowning incidents may occur in any aquatic environment with a water depth that allows immersion or submersion; in a variety of environmental conditions; where the ground in sloping; at any distance from safety; where anxiety is caused; in the absence or safety regulations or when the law is breached.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Drowning, Lifeguard, 4W model of Drowning

Drowning swimmers have sometimes reported near-death experiences (NDEs). In this article, we review and suggest coping strategies that enable professional rescuers and lifeguards to provide more quality services to these individuals. We provide recommendations for the way that resuscitation should be performed, assuming that the casualty might be having an NDE, and for providing effective aftercare to an unconscious drowning casualty, a conscious casualty that cannot verbalize, and the recovered drowning casualty who had an NDE.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, NDE, Emergency Management, Drowning

The purpose of the study was to establish whether a difference in the technique of straddle entry (SE) is reflected in corresponding differences in head length maintained above the water (HAW). National champion aquatic athletes and elite qualified lifeguards (n = 2) performed trials of the SE. Descriptive statistics were used to examine differences in biomechanical parameters. The variables that determine the maintenance of the HAW after submersion for the female was the angle between femurs, the combination of this variable with the forward trunk inclination, toe-to-toe distance and knee-to-knee distance. The co-dependence of these variables was noted. The male demonstrated a superiority in HAW value, but the female performed a more quality complete SE.

The aim of the present study was to identify under what circumstances people drown. Qualitative content analysis was utilized to analyze drowning incident videos (n = 41), and semi-structured interviews of those involved in drowning incidents (n = 34). Results confirm that drowning incidents might occur at any time and during any season although mainly during the daytime. Drowning can occur after engaging in just about any form of human activity, on, near, above or under the surface of a liquid (mainly water), and often as the result of a lack in quality or absence of rescue and personal protective equipment. Also, any risky activity that doesn’t comply with appropriate safety procedures might lead to drowning and various types of rescue might be used.

- by Hillel Schwartz
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Swimming, Children's Play, Drowning

Objectives: To explore whether an intervention during mandatory schooling can lead to age-specific changes in water safety knowledge and attitudes. Methods: Age-specific questionnaires were distributed to 202 kindergarten and grade one pupils, 220 elementary school pupils and 337 pupils attending the first three high school grades in Greater Athens. The information was used to design an educational package that was subsequently presented to pupils of the same grades and similar socio-demographic profiles attending different schools in the same area. One month later, a post-exposure evaluation was conducted using the initial questionnaires, in which 115, 205 and 321 pupils from the respective grade categories provided their responses. In order to compare the performance of pupils exposed to the educational intervention with that of pupils who participated only in the initial assessment, mean differences in scores measuring overall knowledge and attitudes were estimated within each of the three grade groups adjusting for age, gender, sibship size, maternal education and swimming knowledge. Results: Among kindergarten and grade one pupils, those who received the intervention scored significantly higher for knowledge (17.40%, 95% CI 6.41% to 28.39%) and attitudes (23.64%, 95% CI 4.48% to 42.79%). Among elementary school pupils the gains in knowledge were less evident (14.58%, 95% CI 23.05% to 32.21%)) and almost null in attitudes (5.64%, 95% CI 211.47% to 22.77%). Further advancement of age showed no improvement in knowledge (20.15%, 95% CI 25.30% to 4.99%) and a minimal, insignificant increase in attitudes (6.32%, 95% CI 21.87% to 14.52%) among exposed high school pupils. Conclusion: The school-based intervention resulted in considerable positive changes in knowledge and attitudes among very young pupils. Elementary schooling seems to provide meagre opportunities to simply improve knowledge. Alternative/complementary approaches should be sought in any attempt to modify behavior.

- by Meni Malliori
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- Psychology, Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Water, Health Education
- by Mohammed Nazim
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Water Safety

The main criticism of the validity of the diatom test for the diagnosis of drowning is based on the potential
ante- and post-mortem penetration of diatoms and the finding of diatoms in bodies of non-drowned
human beings. However, qualitative and quantitative studies on diatoms in organs of the non-drowned
have yielded both conflicting and contradictory results. In the present study, we have analysed under
standardised methods the diatom content in several organs of 14 non-drowned human bodies. Overall,
only 9 diatoms (6 entire, 3 fragmented) were disclosed in 6 of the 14 non-drowned bodies. Each of these
6 cadavers had only a single ‘‘positive’’ organ. Six diatoms were found in the bone marrow, 2 in the lung,
and one in the pleural liquid. No diatoms were recovered from the brain, liver, kidney, or blood samples of
any of these 14 bodies. Moreover, in five additional cadavers, whose lungs were injected, prior autopsy,
with a 3.5 L solution containing a bi-cellulate diatom culture (Thalassiosira baltica, Thalassiosira levanderi)
via tracheostomy, a few diatoms appeared in the pleural cavity and in the blood from the left heart chamber,
but none in any other internal organs investigated. The results of the presented study demonstrate
that the issue of the false-positive diatom test should not be a logical impediment to the performance of
the diatom method. However, strict and standardized protocols aimed at avoiding contamination during
sample preparation must be used, appropriate separation values set and taxonomic analysis of all diatoms
performed.

- by Kristian Spilling
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Diatoms, Legal Medicine

The purpose of this paper is to share the continuing swimming and water safety education journey, within a university unit which culminates in pre-service teachers implementing quality swimming and water safety lessons for children from local primary schools within the Latrobe Valley, Victoria. There is no cost for children to participate in these lessons and for some it is the only swimming and water safety lessons they receive. This journey began in semester one, 2011 and involved 39 Monash University (Gippsland) students preparing and conducting swimming lessons over three weeks to approximately 80 children. In semester one, 2013 the journey continued increasing to approximately 70 Monash University (Gippsland) students and 140 children.
Pathways were investigated and initiated in 2011 which began a journey of collaboration between Australian Registered Training Organisations (RTO), the local health industry (local leisure and sports centre) and external swimming instructors employed at the venue, local primary schools and the university sector; Monash University (Gippsland). Pathways created the opportunity for the university students to obtain qualifications for safe implementation of swimming lessons; Australian Swimming Coaches and Teachers Association (ASCTA) - Swim Australia Teacher (SAT), Royal Life Saving Society Australia (RLSSA) Bronze Medallion (BM) and RLSSA Resuscitation (RE) courses. Dr. Tim Lynch, Senior Lecturer at Monash University reflects on this swimming education journey towards achieving the Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (December, 2008) and shares feedback evidencing benefits for the various community stakeholders.

The aim of the present study was to identify the rescuer characteristics. Qualitative content analysis was utilized to analyze drowning incident videos (n = 41) and semi-structured interviews of those involved in drowning incidents (n = 34). The rescuers were mainly but not exclusively males between 20–30 years old, physically strong, fit, with good vision, and swimming ability; they tended to hold an updated lifeguard qualification and had previous work experience as a lifeguard; they knew the dangers of the aquatic area. Most of them worked as a member of a lifeguard team, cooperated with other emergency services, were able to visually detect and recognize a drowning casualty and reacted fast despite the lack of response by bystanders.

Biraja Kabi Satapathy (birajakabi@gmail.com) is with the Population Foundation of India, Odisha as Water and Sanitation Specialist in USAID’s Health of the Urban Poor Programme. This article analyses the water, sanitation and hygiene situation in slum households and compares it with the non-slum urban households using data from the 2011 Census. It argues for a shift from the mere water supply coverage to an emphasis on quality water distribution. Intermittent water supply coupled with poor sanitation contributes to higher health risks. Promoting point-of-use water treatment and basic hygiene practices on safe handling and storage of water are important preventive health interventions. This article advocates for a shift from availability of infrastructure to delivery of service-level outcomes. The share of urban population to the total population of India has increased from 27.81% in 2001 to 31.16% in 2011. This increase has also been accompanied by rapid growth of slums in cities. T...

Introduction: This study was a descriptive analysis of national ambulance case records, aimed at making practical safety recommendations in order to reduce the incidence of drowning in swimming pools.
Methods: A search was performed on a national database of descriptive summaries by first responder paramedics of all 995 calls made to the Singapore Civil Defence Force between 1 January 2012 and 31 December 2014. We included all cases of submersion in both public and private pools for which emergency medical services were activated.
Results: The highest proportion of drowning cases occurred in 0–9 years age group. Males accounted for 57.0% (61/107) of cases. Bystander cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) was performed in 91.3% (21/23) and 68.6% (48/70) of cases of cardiac/respiratory arrest from drowning in public and private pools, respectively; the rate of bystander CPR was higher when a lifeguard was present (88.5%, 23/26 vs. 68.7%, 46/67). The majority (72.0%, 77/107) of drowning incidents occurred in private pools, most of which had no lifeguards present.
Conclusion: This study is the first in Singapore to examine data from the emergency medical services. Since the majority of incidents occurred in private pools without lifeguards, it is recommended that a lifeguard be present at every pool. In pools that are too small to justify mandatory lifeguard presence, safety measures, such as guidelines for pool design and pool fencing with latched gates, may be considered. As strict enforcement may not be possible, public education and parental vigilance remain vital.
Keywords: accident prevention, drowning, prehospital emergency care, public health, swimming pools

Water safety in Greece in the form of lifesaving and lifeguarding is 87 years old (1924-2011). The aim of this short report was to overview the life of the “Father” of Hellenic lifesaving and his contribution to the field of lifesaving. A semi-structured interview was obtained by the pioneer of Hellenic lifesaving, Mr Lucas Bistarakis, as well as newspaper cuts and other documents from the public domain (Avramidis, 2006; in press).

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Lifeguarding

Bevezetés
Magyarországon a testnevelés oktatása jelentős változásokon megy keresztül, elég a mindennapos testnevelésre gondolni, vagy a ”Minden gyermek tanuljon meg úszni!” programra. Az iskolai úszásoktatást az 1777-es Ratio Educationis is jegyzi, de a nyílt vizekben történő úszást tiltja. A feljegyzések alapján hazánkban 1805-ben oktattak először intézeti keretek között úszást a haladó szellemű testnevelőknek köszönhetően a Sárospataki Református Iskolában. Országos szinten tantervi megjelenés formájában az 1900-as évek elejétől találunk feljegyzést az úszásoktatásról, mint kiegészítő tananyag. Később, egy 1959-es rendeletnek és az 1960-ban elkezdődött uszodaépítési programnak köszönhetően ötödik osztálytól kötelezővé tették, ahol az infrastruktúra lehetővé tette.
Módszer
A pedagógiailag elemezhető tantervi forrásbázis kritikával kezelt bemutatásán túl, azonos szempontrendszer kialakításával, elemzéssel vizsgáltuk az elérhető szöveges tanterveket, közleményeket. A tanterveken belül kizárólag a testnevelés témakörével foglalkoztunk, azon belül kerestük az úszásoktatással kapcsolatos kulcsszavakat a szövegkörnyezet tükrében. Célunk, hogy azonosságokat és különbözőségeket keresve feltárjuk az általános iskolai úszásoktatás megjelent tantervi követelményeit, milyen korosztályoknál milyen minimum céllal tanítottak. Az alapcélok mellett figyelembe vettük a legfrissebb külföldi szakirodalmakat, amelyek alapján megállapítható, hogy a vízbiztonság meghatározását jelentő 15 kompetencia közül, kiadásonként mennyi jelent meg hazánk oktatási tervezeteiben.
Eredmények
Összegzésként elmondható, hogy a pozitív irányban fejlődő infrastrukturális körülményekkel nem vonható párhuzam a tantervek alapján leszűrhető vízbiztonságot jelentő kompetenciák meglétével. Előfordult, hogy egy-egy korábban kiadott tanterv részletesebb, célorientáltabb feladatokkal, követelményekkel járult hozzá az úszásoktatás minőségéhez és eredményességéhez, mint a 2000-es évek elején megjelent tantervek némelyike.

- by Zsófia Kovács
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Primary School, Curricula, Teaching Swimming
- by Alexander Kaestner
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Saxony (Germany), Dresden, Medical History

The aim of the present study was to identify the casualty characteristics that contribute to drowning according to the 4W model (Avramidis, Butterly & Llewellyn, 2007; 2009). Qualitative content analysis was used to analyze drowning incident videos (n = 41), and semi-structured interviews of those involved in drowning incidents (n = 34). Results confirm that human activity in, on, around an aquatic environment can lead to drowning regardless of the casualty’s type, gender, age, ethnicity, and area of residence. Males far outnumbered females as drowning victims. Younger persons were more likely to drown than adults. Due to socio-economic differences black people in our sample were likely to drown more often while whites who drowned were engaged in aquatic activities that lower socioeconomic individuals likely cannot afford or gain access to. Non swimmers, casualties who have lost consciousness and non-residents to specific aquatic environments also were the ones in the highest danger.

- by Stathis Avramidis
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Emergency Management, Drowning, Lifeguard

The article discusses the impact of an accident on each host country for the Olympic Games, in which an athlete cut his head after diving from a 3-meter springboard in September 1988 in Seoul, Korea. The lessons learned from the incident were applied by each host country to organize better facilities and safer games. Sports facilities, particularly the aquatic facilities and the lifeguards who had to supervise the swimming pools, also must be ready.

With the Presidential Government System, Republic of Turkey started an initiative to develop a respectful sound of the silent and building a forward-thinking civilization, a movement that its radius reaching to Turkey; also presented the final phase of the metamorphosis of its governance structure (or, one of the milestones of the successful phases) both geopolitically and strategically well-settled and conceived.
Republic of Turkey, as known, a democratic, secular, and a state with social-programs for underprivileged, wholly governed by rule of law, and when it comes to the several factors that makes Republic of Turkey an irrevocable main player; most of these factors are related to how Republic of Turkey handles regional security and cares for the benefit of society on a macro level in its region; the underlying principles of being a righteous and fair mediator and peace-maker for its peripheral area and for the further connection of those countries in that same peripheral area—as known, most major water sources and rivers stem out of Turkish territory, in relation to these positives are rooted in from strengths of Republic of Turkey out of how well Republic of Turkey conducts its sources of water and security of sources of water; meanwhile as energy travels inter-borders, sources of energy and security of its sources of energy, in a sustainable, stable and if encountered a problem immediately answered manner. In order to protect the fragile balances, the World and the regional peace need smart but not cheating players.
Finally, it is an inevitable requirement that State of Israel has to produce itself a new type of governance that will democratically collect certain will and political power such as in the Presidential Government System to solve issues put forward by the current agenda of the region, it is an occurrence we see today that Republic of Turkey and State of Israel must cooperate with each other as a requirement, not a choice.

Słowa kluczowe: polityka publiczna, bezpieczeństwo wewnętrzne, proces polityki, utonięcia Wprowadzenie Ustawa z dnia 18 sierpnia 2011 r. o bezpieczeństwie osób przebywających na obszarach wodnych była pierwszym aktem prawnym tej rangi poświęconym wyłącznie zagadnie-niu bezpieczeństwa obszarów wodnych, a zarazem krokiem reformującym dotychczas istniejący podsystem oparty głównie na rozporządzeniach oraz dominującej pozycji Wodnego Ochotniczego Pogotowia Ratunkowego (WOPR). Celem niniejszego artykułu jest analiza funkcjonowania tego wycinka polityki publicznej po czterech pełnych latach obowiązywania nowej ustawy. Ujęte w tytule pojęcie polityki rozumiane jest tu szeroko jako "określony sposób postępowania władz publicznych w celu rozwiązania problemów o znaczeniu zbiorowym" oraz "działania-lub ich brak-które wywierają wpływ na życie obywateli" Można odnieść wrażenie, że bezpieczeństwo na obszarach wodnych, czy pisząc pre-cyzyjniej-bezpieczeństwo osób korzystających z obszarów wodnych, traktowane jest jako specyficzny obszar bezpieczeństwa o nie do końca uświadomionym znaczeniu za-równo przez administrację publiczną, jak i świat nauki. Być może ma to związek z bra-kiem wyznaczonej do tego obszaru służby lub instytucji publicznej. Wpływ mogą też mieć skojarzenia z beztroską wypoczynku wakacyjnego oraz silne konotacje popkulturowe wytworzone przez amerykańskie seriale telewizyjne Podejście takie, zdaniem autora tego artykułu, nie jest uzasadnione.

The present paper attempted to systematise contemporary context of Polish water safety system and create a preliminary evaluation of the changes in the water safety system on Polish Baltic coast created by new legislation. The main subject is the risk assessment in the form of audits of bathing waters along with categorisation processes. Detailed analysis included the Act of 18 August 2011 concerning the safety of persons in water, the notions of administrators of water area, entities authorized to perform water rescue, operational standards and reporting, monitoring with respect to dangerous bathing spots, and drownings. An analysis is presented on the basis of 90 bathing sites and guarded areas used for swimming in the West Pomeranian Voivodship in 2013 and compared with the results of the years 2010-2012. Last part of publication is about the number of drownings in the West Pomeranian Province according to the accepted international standard.

- by Antti Sajantila
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Forensic Pathology, Diatoms, Finland
- by Martin Evison
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- Water Safety/Drowning/Lifesaving, Forensic Medicine, Forensic Pathology, Drowning

The purpose of this paper is to explore a community swimming program using autoethnography qualitative
research. Autoethnography is an approach to research and writing that seeks to describe and systematically analyze (graphy) personal experience (auto) in order to understand cultural experience (ethno) (Ellis 2004; Holman Jones 2005). Through childhood reflection of lived swimming experiences, and adult life reflection of lived swimming teaching experiences as a primary school teacher, health and physical education (HPE) specialist teacher and teacher educator, the author, illustrates how aquatic practices and education has shaped his belief, and consequently his drive to initiate a community swimming program. Furthermore, through this illustration, the reader is invited to enter the world of the author as a program pioneer, and share examination of dynamics involved in initiating opportunities for collaboratively developing swimming ability and confidence in primary school children, pre-service teachers and classroom teachers. More specifically, this involves critical analysis of course preparation, participant benefits and barriers during a collaborative swimming education process within Australian society.