England in the Middle Ages (original) (raw)

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410—1485 рр. н. е. ми називаємо середньовіччям або середніми віками. Але визначити точну дату початку або завершення цього періоду неможливо. Середньовіччя почалася не відразу після того, як у 410 р. Англію залишили останні римські війська, і не закінчилося після того, як на престол зійшов Генріх VII. У період середньовіччя англійські королі мали володіння не тільки в Англії, а й у Франції. Генріх I правив Нормандією, Бретанню і Меном, а Генріх II — імперією, яка простягалася від шотландського кордону до Піренеїв.

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dbo:abstract يهتم هذا المقال بتاريخ إنجلترا خلال مرحلة العصور الوسطى التي امتدت من نهاية القرن الخامس حتى بداية الفترة الحديثة المبكرة في عام 1485. خرجت إنجلترا بوضع اقتصادي يرثى له بعد انهيار الإمبراطورية الرومانية؛ الأمر الذي دفع السكان إلى ترك العديد من المدن. بدأت ثقافات وهويات جديدة بالظهور بعد عدة قرون من الهجرة الألمانية، وهو ما تطور فيما بعد لتصبح تلك الثقافات ممالك تتنافس فيما بينها على السلطة. ازدهرت ثقافة فنية غنية في الحقبة الأنجلوسكسونية؛ إذ أُنتجت خلالها العديد من القصائد الملحمية مثل بيوولف، وأنتج كذلك خلالها العديد من الأعمال المعدنية المتطورة. تحول الأنجلوسكسونيون في القرن السابع عشر إلى المسيحية وشيدوا بذلك مجموعة من الأديرة في جميع أنحاء إنجلترا. واجهت إنجلترا في القرنين الثامن والتاسع هجمات عنيفة من الفايكنغ، واستمر القتال حينها عدة عقود لينتهي أخيرًا بتأسيس ويسيكس التي اعتبرت أقوى الممالك محققةً تطورًا هامًا للهوية الإنجليزية. تمكنت إنجلترا من تكوين دولة قوية مركزية ذات اقتصاد عسكري قوي وناجح بحلول ستينيات القرن الحادي عشر رغم الأزمات المتكررة التي واجهتها الخلافة إضافة إلى السيطرة الدنماركية على السلطة في بدايات ذاك القرن. أدى الغزو النورماندي الذي شهدته إنجلترا عام 1066 إلى استبدال النخبة الأنجلوسكسونية بنبلاء النورمان والفرنسيين وأنصارهم؛ إذ سيطر وليم الفاتح وخلفاؤه على نظام الدولة في تلك الفترة وقاموا بإخماد الثورات المحلية وفرضوا سيطرتهم على السكان عن طريق شبكة من القلاع التي أقاموها. مارس الحكام الجدد الفكر الإقطاعي للسيطرة على البلاد وقضوا على ممارسة العبودية، لكنهم خلقوا مجموعة كبيرة من العمال غير الأحرار الذين أُطلق عليهم لقب «الأقنان». تغير وضع المرأة في المجتمع كذلك مع تغير القوانين المتعلقة بالأرض والسيادة. تضاعف عدد سكان إنجلترا خلال القرنين الثاني عشر والثالث عشر ما أدى إلى توسع المدن والبلدان وتطور التجارة بمساعدة ارتفاع درجة الحرارة في الشمال الأوروبي. شهدت البلاد إنشاء أديرة جديدة بالإضافة إلى حدوث إصلاحات كنسية أدت إلى خلق خلاف وتوتر بين الملوك والأساقفة المتعاقبين. نشأت كذلك في تلك الفترة العديد من الحروب الأهلية التي أنهت الحكم النورماندي نتيجة الخلاف الأنجلونورماندي رغم كل ما شهده نظام الحكم والنظام القانوني في إنجلترا من تطورات. حمل القرن الرابع عشر إلى إنجلترا المجاعة الكبيرة والموت الأسود؛ إذ أدت تلك الكوارث إلى موت نصف سكان البلد في تلك الفترة، وهذا ما أدخل الاقتصاد في فوضى عارمة وأدى إلى عودة النظام السياسي القديم. ترتب على ذلك اضطرابات اجتماعية هامة؛ إذ بدأت ثورة الفلاحين عام 1381. بالمقابل، أدت التغيرات الاقتصادية إلى ظهور طبقة جديدة من النبلاء بدأت بممارستها للسلطة من خلال نظام سُمِّي بالإقطاع الوغد. هجر سكان القرى والمدن بيوتهم في تلك الفترة باحثين عن فرص عمل جديدة في البلدان والمدن المجاورة. ظهرت آنذاك العديد من التقنيات الجديدة وأخرجت إنجلترا ذاك الزمن العديد من الفلاسفة والعلماء. تمكن الملوك الإنجليز من السيطرة على العرش الفرنسي؛ وهذا ما أشعل حرب المائة عام. حققت في هذه الفترة إنجلترا نشاطًا عسكريا هائلًا كان سببه الدعم الاقتصادي الذي تمكنت من الوصول إليه عن طريق تجارة الصوف والأقمشة الدولية. عانت البلاد أزمةً بحلول عام 1450 حين فشلت وانسحبت قواتها من فرنسا. تزايدت الاضطرابات الاجتماعية خلال تلك المرحلة ليتلو ذلك حدوث حرب الورود التي قامت بين الفصائل المتناحرة في الطبقة الإنجليزية النبيلة. كان انتصار هنري السابع عام 1485 الحد الفاصل بين نهاية العصور الوسطى في إنجلترا وبداية الحقبة الحديثة المبكرة. (ar) England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo-Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decades, eventually establishing Wessex as the most powerful kingdom and promoting the growth of an English identity. Despite repeated crises of succession and a Danish seizure of power at the start of the 11th century, it can also be argued that by the 1060s England was a powerful, centralised state with a strong military and successful economy. The Norman invasion of England in 1066 led to the defeat and replacement of the Anglo-Saxon elite with Norman and French nobles and their supporters. William the Conqueror and his successors took over the existing state system, repressing local revolts and controlling the population through a network of castles. The new rulers introduced a feudal approach to governing England, eradicating the practice of slavery, but creating a much wider body of unfree labourers called serfs. The position of women in society changed as laws regarding land and lordship shifted. England's population more than doubled during the 12th and 13th centuries, fueling an expansion of the towns, cities, and trade, helped by warmer temperatures across Northern Europe. A new wave of monasteries and friaries was established while ecclesiastical reforms led to tensions between successive kings and archbishops. Despite developments in England's governance and legal system, infighting between the Anglo-Norman elite resulted in multiple civil wars and the loss of Normandy. The 14th century in England saw the Great Famine and the Black Death, catastrophic events that killed around half of England's population, throwing the economy into chaos, and undermining the old political order. Social unrest followed, resulting in the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, while the changes in the economy resulted in the emergence of a new class of gentry, and the nobility began to exercise power through a system termed bastard feudalism. Nearly 1,500 villages were deserted by their inhabitants and many men and women sought new opportunities in the towns and cities. New technologies were introduced, and England produced some of the great medieval philosophers and natural scientists. English kings in the 14th and 15th centuries laid claim to the French throne, resulting in the Hundred Years' War. At times England enjoyed huge military success, with the economy buoyed by profits from the international wool and cloth trade, but by 1450 the country was in crisis, facing military failure in France and an ongoing recession. More social unrest broke out, followed by the Wars of the Roses, fought between rival factions of the English nobility. Henry VII's victory in 1485 conventionally marks the end of the Middle Ages in England and the start of the Early Modern period. (en) Il Medioevo inglese riguarda la storia dell'Inghilterra durante il periodo medievale iniziato al principio del V secolo e terminato negli ultimi anni del XV secolo all'inizio dell'età moderna. Storicamente iniziò con la partenza delle legioni romane dalla Britannia e l'invasione degli Anglosassoni e terminò con Enrico VIII e la riforma del teologo scozzese, John Knox. Al crollo dell'Impero romano, l'Inghilterra si trovò con un'economia in forte crisi e con gran parte dei centri urbani oramai spopolati tanto che gli storici parlano di "secoli bui" o "periodo sub-romano" per riferirsi a quegli anni. Ci vollero diversi secoli di immigrazione germanica affinché potessero emergere nuove identità e culture che dettero origine a regni in competizione tra loro per il potere sulla regione, un periodo storico noto come "eptarchia anglosassone". Sotto gli Anglosassoni fiorì una ricca cultura artistica che vide la produzione di poemi epici, come Beowulf, e di sofisticati manufatti in metallo. Nel VII secolo gli Anglosassoni si convertirono al cristianesimo e in tutta l'Inghilterra sorsero monasteri e conventi. Tra l'VIII e il IX secolo l'Inghilterra affrontò feroci attacchi da parte dei Vichinghi da cui emerse l'affermazione del Wessex come il regno più potente e il progressivo instaurarsi nella società di un'identità inglese. Nonostante le ripetute crisi di successione e la presa del potere dei Dani all'inizio dell'XI secolo, si può affermare che negli intorno agli anni 860 l'Inghilterra era uno Stato potente e centralizzato con una forte economia militare. L'invasione normanna dell'Inghilterra del 1066 portò alla sconfitta dell'élite anglosassone e alla sua sostituzione con la nobiltà normanna e francese. Guglielmo il Conquistatore e i suoi successori si impadronirono del sistema statale esistente, reprimendo le rivolte locali e arrivando a esercitare un rigido controllo sulla popolazione attraverso una rete di castelli. I nuovi governanti introdussero il sistema feudale, sradicando la pratica della schiavitù ma creando una classe molto più ampia di lavoratori non liberi, detti servi della gleba. Tra il XII e il XIII secolo la popolazione dell'Inghilterra andò più che a raddoppiare, alimentando un'espansione dei paesi, delle città e dei commerci, anche grazie a un felice periodo climatico che avvantaggiò tutto il Nord Europa. Fu un periodo caratterizzato anche dalla fondazione di nuovi monasteri e abbazie, mentre la riforma della Chiesa in atto portò a tensioni tra sovrani e arcivescovi. Nonostante gli sviluppi nel governo e l'affermarsi di un sistema legale, le lotte interne tra l'élite anglo-normanna provocarono molteplici guerre civili e la perdita della Normandia. L'Inghilterra del XIV secolo dovette affrontare la grande carestia e la peste nera, eventi catastrofici che uccisero circa la metà della popolazione, gettando l'economia nel caos e minando il vecchio ordine politico. I disordini sociali conseguenti sfociarono nella rivolta dei contadini del 1381 mentre i cambiamenti nell'economia portarono all'emergere di una nuova classe nobiliare che iniziò a esercitare il potere attraverso un sistema chiamato "". Quasi 1 500 villaggi furono abbandonati e molti uomini e donne cercarono nuove opportunità nelle città. Nel contempo furono introdotte nuove tecnologie mentre negli ambienti intellettuali si affermarono alcuni dei più grandi filosofi e scienziati medievali. I sovrani inglesi del XIV e XV secolo rivendicarono il trono di Francia, causando la guerra dei cent'anni. Nei primi anni di guerra l'Inghilterra colse numerose vittorie mentre l'economia prosperava sostenuta dai profitti del commercio internazionale di lana e stoffa, tuttavia intorno al 1450 il paese si trovò a dover far fronte a una totale disfatta militare che la costrinse a ritirarsi dalla Francia e a subire una rovinosa recessione. A seguito di ciò scoppiò la guerra delle due rose, combattute tra le fazioni rivali della nobiltà inglese. La successiva vittoria di Enrico VII d'Inghilterra nel 1485 segna convenzionalmente la fine del Medioevo inglese e l'inizio del periodo della prima età moderna. (it) England under medeltiden avser den del av Englands historia som inträffade under medeltiden, från slutet av 400-talet till början av 1485, som inleddes med Tudortiden. Perioden inleddes med Romerska rikets tillbakadragande från Britannia och senare dess fall, med tillhörande ekonomisk nedgång på de brittiska öarna. Därefter följde flera århundraden av germansk immigration som ledde till att den anglosaxiska kulturen etablerades. Under 700- och 800-talen inträffade invasioner av vikingar och i början av 1000-talet ett danskt maktövertagande. Normandernas invasion av England 1066 ledde till att normandisk och fransk adel ersatte den anglosaxiska eliten och införde ett feodalt system. Englands befolkning mer än dubblerades under 1100- och 1200-talen, vilket ledde till att nya städer etablerades och att handeln expanderade. Under 1300-talet ledde den stora svälten (1315–1317) och digerdöden till att ungefär hälften av Englands befolkning dog, många byar övergavs, och en period med uppror och social oro följde. Engelska kungars anspråk på den franska tronen ledde till hundraårskriget (1337–1453), där England omväxlande hade framgångar och motgångar. Slutet av Rosornas krig (1455-1485), en serie inbördeskrig om Englands tron, räknas som slutet av medeltiden i England. (sv) 410—1485 рр. н. е. ми називаємо середньовіччям або середніми віками. Але визначити точну дату початку або завершення цього періоду неможливо. Середньовіччя почалася не відразу після того, як у 410 р. Англію залишили останні римські війська, і не закінчилося після того, як на престол зійшов Генріх VII. У період середньовіччя англійські королі мали володіння не тільки в Англії, а й у Франції. Генріх I правив Нормандією, Бретанню і Меном, а Генріх II — імперією, яка простягалася від шотландського кордону до Піренеїв. (uk)
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rdfs:comment 410—1485 рр. н. е. ми називаємо середньовіччям або середніми віками. Але визначити точну дату початку або завершення цього періоду неможливо. Середньовіччя почалася не відразу після того, як у 410 р. Англію залишили останні римські війська, і не закінчилося після того, як на престол зійшов Генріх VII. У період середньовіччя англійські королі мали володіння не тільки в Англії, а й у Франції. Генріх I правив Нормандією, Бретанню і Меном, а Генріх II — імперією, яка простягалася від шотландського кордону до Піренеїв. (uk) يهتم هذا المقال بتاريخ إنجلترا خلال مرحلة العصور الوسطى التي امتدت من نهاية القرن الخامس حتى بداية الفترة الحديثة المبكرة في عام 1485. خرجت إنجلترا بوضع اقتصادي يرثى له بعد انهيار الإمبراطورية الرومانية؛ الأمر الذي دفع السكان إلى ترك العديد من المدن. بدأت ثقافات وهويات جديدة بالظهور بعد عدة قرون من الهجرة الألمانية، وهو ما تطور فيما بعد لتصبح تلك الثقافات ممالك تتنافس فيما بينها على السلطة. ازدهرت ثقافة فنية غنية في الحقبة الأنجلوسكسونية؛ إذ أُنتجت خلالها العديد من القصائد الملحمية مثل بيوولف، وأنتج كذلك خلالها العديد من الأعمال المعدنية المتطورة. تحول الأنجلوسكسونيون في القرن السابع عشر إلى المسيحية وشيدوا بذلك مجموعة من الأديرة في جميع أنحاء إنجلترا. واجهت إنجلترا في القرنين الثامن والتاسع هجمات عنيفة من الفايكنغ، واستمر القتال حينها عدة عقود لينتهي أخيرًا بتأسيس ويسيكس التي اعتبرت أقوى (ar) England in the Middle Ages concerns the history of England during the medieval period, from the end of the 5th century through to the start of the Early Modern period in 1485. When England emerged from the collapse of the Roman Empire, the economy was in tatters and many of the towns abandoned. After several centuries of Germanic immigration, new identities and cultures began to emerge, developing into kingdoms that competed for power. A rich artistic culture flourished under the Anglo-Saxons, producing epic poems such as Beowulf and sophisticated metalwork. The Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity in the 7th century and a network of monasteries and convents were built across England. In the 8th and 9th centuries England faced fierce Viking attacks, and the fighting lasted for many decad (en) Il Medioevo inglese riguarda la storia dell'Inghilterra durante il periodo medievale iniziato al principio del V secolo e terminato negli ultimi anni del XV secolo all'inizio dell'età moderna. Storicamente iniziò con la partenza delle legioni romane dalla Britannia e l'invasione degli Anglosassoni e terminò con Enrico VIII e la riforma del teologo scozzese, John Knox. Al crollo dell'Impero romano, l'Inghilterra si trovò con un'economia in forte crisi e con gran parte dei centri urbani oramai spopolati tanto che gli storici parlano di "secoli bui" o "periodo sub-romano" per riferirsi a quegli anni. Ci vollero diversi secoli di immigrazione germanica affinché potessero emergere nuove identità e culture che dettero origine a regni in competizione tra loro per il potere sulla regione, un perio (it) England under medeltiden avser den del av Englands historia som inträffade under medeltiden, från slutet av 400-talet till början av 1485, som inleddes med Tudortiden. Perioden inleddes med Romerska rikets tillbakadragande från Britannia och senare dess fall, med tillhörande ekonomisk nedgång på de brittiska öarna. Därefter följde flera århundraden av germansk immigration som ledde till att den anglosaxiska kulturen etablerades. Under 700- och 800-talen inträffade invasioner av vikingar och i början av 1000-talet ett danskt maktövertagande. Normandernas invasion av England 1066 ledde till att normandisk och fransk adel ersatte den anglosaxiska eliten och införde ett feodalt system. Englands befolkning mer än dubblerades under 1100- och 1200-talen, vilket ledde till att nya städer etablera (sv)
rdfs:label إنجلترا في العصور الوسطى (ar) England in the Middle Ages (en) Medioevo inglese (it) England under medeltiden (sv) Середньовічна Англія (uk)
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is dbp:discipline of dbr:F._M._Powicke
is dbp:subDiscipline of dbr:Beth_Allison_Barr dbr:Richard_Britnell dbr:Christine_Carpenter_(historian) dbr:G._L._Harriss dbr:Anthony_Steel_(historian) dbr:Mark_Ormrod_(historian)
is foaf:primaryTopic of wikipedia-en:England_in_the_Middle_Ages