Gender Wage Gap Research Papers (original) (raw)

The gender pay gap is about gender representation in roles that pay differently, and is about gender portrayal in jobs that pay in an unexpected way, and is not quite the same as equivalent compensation concerns. The gender pay gap is determined by taking the normal compensation for all females in an association, paying little mind to job or duties, and contrasting that with the normal pay for all guys in a similar association, paying little heed to job or obligations. The distinction in these two normal sums is the " gender pay gap." Paying ladies not as much as men for a similar activity, absolutely by virtue of their gender, is unlawful and is banned by correspondence enactment. It alludes to the gap between what is earned on normal by ladies and men dependent on normal gross hourly income of every single paid representative-not simply people doing likewise work, or with a similar encounter or working example. It doesn't demonstrate or distinguish separation or inclination or even a nonattendance of equivalent compensation for equivalent worth work. The next section reviews the theoretical and empirical literature analyzing gender wage differences. Section III describes the trends in gender wage gaps across countries and regions in this date. The fourth section presents how to close gender pay gap. The final section concludes with some thoughts on policy implications.

- by
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- Gender Wage Gap, Wage Gap
- by Katrien Stevens
- •
- Human Capital, Gender Wage Gap, Labor Market, Life Cycle

Discrimination against females is one of the most discussed topics in
economic literature. Discrimination shows itself in different stages of the
life in various levels from the household to economic sectors. Over the
past few years, some serious actions have been taken and several
resolutions were accepted by international organizations and countries.
However, only a few countries managed to achieve high level of gender
equality. Using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Blinder-Oaxaca
decomposition methods author examines household survey dataset for
case of Azerbaijan, more clearly capital Baku. Baku is the main economic center of Azerbaijan and hosting nearly half of population. Research findings presents scientific evidence that there is a wage discrimination against women in Azerbaijan. Furthermore, it became clear that education attainment significantly affects gender wage gap and females do not face wage discrimination as their education level increases. Finally, results show that married females are more discriminated.

- by AJSES ASERC
- •
- Education, Gender Discrimination, Gender Wage Gap, Marital Status
- by R. Plasman
- •
- Gender Wage Gap

This paper examines the latest research on the digital skills crisis, focusing on the factors that contribute to digital exclusion. Through an extensive analysis of current literature on the digital divide, the authors discuss digital skills gaps, namely the exclusion of a sizeable part of the workforce from the digital market economy—and women in particular. Studies indicate that exclusion from the digital market is augmented and reinforced when combining the gender dimension with other exclusionary factors such as disability, age, race and socioeconomic background. Research confirms that the gender imbalance in ICT and related sectors persists today, despite decades of equal opportunity policies, legislation and government initiatives. Women are still underrepresented and digitally excluded and efforts to attract, recruit and retain girls and women in ICT and STEM seem to be failing, reinforcing the gender gaps: participation gap, pay gap, and leadership gap, a result of the deep-...

- by Nancy Pascall
- •
- Entrepreneurship, Information Technology, Gender Studies, Digital Divide

In this paper, we study how age, gender and education level affected earnings in the US in 1992 and how it changed in 2004. It is not an uncommon knowledge that a lot of work have been done on how age, gender and educational level affects earnings, however this work is peculiar in the sense that, we test theory and empirical work with randomly selected data. We find that as expected, earnings are positively related to age and educational level and earnings of females in both periods are significantly lower than their male counterparts. In addition, we find that earnings are significantly affected by age, gender and education in both periods under consideration.

This paper investigates the sensitivity of average wage gap decompositions to methods resting on different assumptions regarding endogeneity of observed characteristics, sample selection into employment, and estimators' functional form.
Applying five distinct decomposition techniques to estimate the gender wage gap in the U.S.\ using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979, we find that the magnitudes of the wage gap components are generally not stable across methods. Furthermore, the definition of the observed characteristics matters: merely including their levels (as frequently seen in wage decompositions) entails smaller explained and larger unexplained components than when including both their levels and histories in the analysis. Given the sensitivity of our results, we advise caution when using wage decompositions for policy recommendations.

- by Martin Huber
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- Gender Wage Gap, Wage Gap Decompositions, Causal Mediation Analysis
- by Stephanie Seguino
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- East Asia, Gender Equality, Public sector, Development policy

We investigate different techniques to assess the gender pay gap in five EU countries (France, Germany, Italy, Spain and United Kingdom), focusing on self-selection into market work. Results show that selectivity correction has an impact on both wage estimates and wage gap decomposition. If there is a positive correlation between the wage and the propensity to participate, the estimated pay

- by Francois Laisney
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- United Kingdom, Gender Wage Gap, Wage Gap

In this review article, I focus on the changing trends and main explanations of gender wage inequality in the United States. First, I briefly describe the most prominent trends in gender
wage inequality since the end of the 1970s. I then summarize theoretical explanations of these trends at both the individual level and the structural level. At the individual level, neoclassical human capital theory highlights the sharp increase in women’s educational attainment as the reason for the narrowing trend in the gender pay gap, while using the
gender differences in educational and work experience to explain the persistence of this gap. An emerging debate about the human capital explanation is whether the observed gender disparities in educational and work experiences are the result of individuals’ personal choices or the consequences of social construction. I subsequently numerate three main sociological theories—gendered socialization, statistical discrimination, and social capital—to show how social values, conventions, and systems shape individuals’ “free” choices. At the structural level, I emphasize the fundamental shift in the industrial structure and employment arrangements driven by the skill-biased technology change (SBTC) and globalization. I conclude this article by summarizing both the positive and the worrisome trends in gender wage inequality, and by outlining policy implications for achieving gender equity in the future development of the U.S. labor market.

- by Jing Shen
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- Gender Equality, Income inequality, Gender Wage Gap, Gender inequality

This study focuses on gender segregation and its implications for the salaries assigned to male- and female-typed jobs. We used a between-subjects design to examine whether participants would assign different pay to 3 types of jobs wherein the actual responsibilities and duties carried out by men and women were the same, but the job was situated in either a traditionally masculine or traditionally feminine domain. We found pay differentials between jobs defined as “male” and “female,” which suggest that gender-based discrimination, arising from occupational stereotyping and the devaluation of the work typically done by women, influences salary allocation. The ways in which the results fit with contemporary theorizing about sexism and with the shifting standards model (Biernat, 1995, 2003) are discussed.

- by Serge Desmarais
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- Marketing, Psychology, Cognitive Science, Applied Social Science
- by Johnny Mejía-Burbano
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- Gender Studies, Gender Equality, Gender and Development, STEM Education
- by Damian Grimshaw
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- Economics, Industrial Relations, European Union, Public sector

El capítulo aborda el análisis de la brecha de género en el trabajo profesional cualificado, considerando los principales indicadores de la estructura del trabajo profesional en España. Sin embargo, dado que la igualdad de género no puede formularse sólo en términos de igual participación e igual éxito en el mercado de trabajo, sino también en la eliminación de la segregación existente en el inicio y a lo largo de las trayectorias profesionales, en este capítulo se contemplarán también los datos de ingreso a las distintas titulaciones y el desarrollo posterior de las carreras profesionales de hombres y mujeres, atendiendo a algunos indicadores del mercado de trabajo y a la brecha salarial (segregación vertical), pero considerando asimismo las diferentes condiciones laborales y familiares.

- by Lucila Finkel
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- Sociology of Professions, Gender Wage Gap, Gender Gap, Brecha De Género

This is a written version of a talk which I gave at the Scottish Family Party Annual conference in 2020. I explore how men and women have different relationships to patterns of employment and unemployment and the structuring of taxes and benefits. The way in which patterns of employment and unemployment and access to benefits are shaped by gender has a direct impact on patterns of family formation. I conclude with some proposals about how the family can be strengthened.

- by Belinda Brown
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- Men's Studies, Women's Studies, Family, Gender Equality

У овом чланку
аутор истражује
положај
жена
на тржишту
рада
у Србији.
Посебна
пажња
је усмерена
на положај
жена
у запослености
и незапослености,
и положају
жена
на тржишту
рада
у неким
другим
друштвима
у транзицији.
Иако је уопште
било
много
позитивних
промена
у положају
жена
на тржишту
рада
дугорочно
посматрано,
посебно
у пред-транзиционом
периоду,
многи
показатељи
указују
да је положај
жена
још лошији
у односу
на мушкарце:
удео жена
у економској
активности
и запослености
је мањи,
стопа
незапослености
жена
је већа,
жене
просечно
дуже
чекају
запослење,
концентрација
жена
у типично
женским
професијама
је још веома
висока.
Главна
теза
је доказана:
жене
у друштву
у транзицији
су маргинализоване
и фрагментиране.
Оне још
морају
да усклађују
породичне
обавезе
са радним
обавезама.
Ново
радно
законодавство
и промене
у здравственом,
пензионом
систему
и социјалној
сигурности
воде
ка не-стандардном
запошљавању
жена
и нижим
зарадама.

- by Nada G Novakovic
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- Labor Economics, Labour Law, Work and Labour, Women and Gender Studies
- by Ellen Nyhus
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- Human Capital, Applied Economics, Self Efficacy, Gender Wage Gap

Bu rapor Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK) ve ILO Türkiye Ofisi arasında imzalanan işbirliği protokolü kapsamında oluşturulan çalışma ekibi tarafından hazırlanmıştır.
Çalışma ekibinde yer alan TÜİK temsilcileri başta Ş. Şenol Bozdağ, Hüseyin Tancan Kale olmak üzere Şebnem Beşe Canpolat, Aslıhan Kabadayı, Asila Koçak ve Gözde Nur Dinarcan araştırmanın gerçekleştirilmesine çok değerli katkılarda bulunmuştur. Ayrıca, araştırma sürecinde yapılan tüm çalışma toplantılarına katılım sağlayan Ahmet Osmanlı, Alper Dağ, Gökay Fatma Bostancı, Serhan Avcı, Mehmet
Akif Davarcı, Yakut Yüksel, Işıl Durmuş değerli fikir ve görüşleriyle araştırmayı desteklemiş; ILO Türkiye Ofisi’nden Ebru Özberk Anlı, Dr. Luis Pinedo Caro ve Dr. Emel Akalın, Ankara Üniversitesi İktisat Bölümü
öğretim üyesi Doç. Dr. Emel Memiş ile araştırmanın yürütülmesine ve raporun hazırlanmasına katkıda bulunmuştur.

- by Tancan KALE and +1
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- ILO, Gender Wage Gap, TÜİK, EU-SILC
- by Beth Livingston
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- Marketing, Psychology, Cognitive Science, Personality
- by christiane schwieren
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- Double Auction, Gender Wage Gap, Labor Market

This study aims to measure the gender wage gap among millennial workers in Colombia and determine if there is a marked wage difference between millennial women and men. Further, this study analyzes whether millennial women face a glass ceiling, that is, if there is a larger gender wage gap among workers earning relatively high wages. The study data included a sample of 2,144 millennial workers employed in 11 organizations located in the five main cities of Colombia. Oaxaca–Blinder econometric methods of wage decomposition were used to calculate both raw and adjusted gender wage gaps. The latter results in estimating the gender wage gap while controlling for observable characteristics related to individual, family, and labor. The results show that millennial workers in Colombia face gender inequality in the labor market and that professional millennial women experience a distinct glass ceiling. The adjusted gender wage gap is 9.5 percent, and this gap increases with education level, increasing to nearly 14 percent among college-educated workers. This paper contributes to the literature on workplace discrimination and gender wage inequality for younger workers, and it is original in reviewing the gender pay gap in Colombia using a primary dataset. Most of the work in this area has been done mainly in the developed countries and this research add to the findings which had focused on those nations.

- by Sile Odorchai
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- Gender Wage Gap

La autora critica la contradicción del Tribunal Constitucional en lo relacionado a la distribución de la anticoncepción oral de emergencia (AOE), más conocida como la píldora del día siguiente. Luego de recordar en qué consistió cada decisión, plantea interrogantes respecto a las consecuencias derivadas del cambio de criterio. Considera que esta situación ha llevado a incrementar las diferencias entre mujeres en materia de derechos sexuales y reproductivos, sobre la base de su poder adquisitivo.

- by Raymond Robertson
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- Economics, Econometrics, Labor Economics, Mexico
- by Solomon Polachek
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- Negative Affect, Gender Wage Gap, Minimum Wage, Labor Market Institutions
- by Christophe J. Nordman
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- Applied Economics, Quantile Regression, Glass Ceiling, Developing Country

Occupation is the key unit in matching vacancies and job seekers, and it is used for occupational choice and for career consultancy. Occupation is also a key variable in social research, particularly that which relates to the labour market, transitions from school to work, social stratification, gender wage gaps, occupational structures and skill requirements. Despite the fact that occupation is

- by E. Ruijter and +2
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- Social Stratification, United Kingdom, Gender Wage Gap, Labour Market

The evolution of the Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) continues generating paradigm-shifts in the tourism industry, and the incorporation of gender diversity in the managing bodies of hospitality and tourism firms can become a factor of critical success. Nevertheless, women’s under-representation on decision-making positions in ICT or high-tech organizations (double gender gap) in the tourism industry has been hardly evaluated. The aim of this paper is to extend the understanding of the impact of this double level of discrimination at a vertical and horizontal level. The impact of stereotypes, gender roles and gendered organizations become the theoretical framework on this study. The biggest multinationals in the tourism industry were classified according to Eurostat’s definition of high-tech services in three intensive technological levels (High-Tech Knowledge Intensive; Knowledge-Intensive and Less Knowledge-lntensive). The composition of their Board of Directors (BOD) and Management Teams (MT) was analysed, through their annual reports and online public related documents, and evaluated through Content Analysis. Based on a total of 55 tourism related firms, the results confirm the direct relationship between the technological level of the companies and the lower participation of women on MT and BOD. Results also show that Gender Diversity Programs promote women representation on the BOD and that this relation is bi-directional, i.e. more women on BOD imply more gender diversity programs.

- by Jesus Palomo and +1
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- Gender Studies, Decision Making, Corporate Governance, Gender

Which public policies most effectively promote gender equality and how can they be realized internationally to support women on a global scale? I first argue that longer periods of paid paternity leave must be embraced to challenge the historical conception of women as the primary caregiver in a male-female partnership and to bring men into the private sphere at the important confluence of a couple's childfree and parental lives. In order to broadly achieve these policies, I turn to international law. Building off Charlesworth, Chinkin, and Wright's observation of the international legal order's gendered nature, I demonstrate that the International Labour Organization's (ILO) core labor standards, as they are today, reflect a gendered understanding of the labor market and are insufficient to support the basic needs of a working population that includes both men and women. I further argue that a reimagined set of these standards should be incorporated into a World Trade Organization (WTO) Trade-Related Agreement on Labor Standards that would impose substantive obligations on Member States. Such an agreement would be consistent with the WTO's historical embrace of " embedded liberalism " and could ultimately drive domestic policy transformations benefiting women worldwide.

- by Taylor Stoneman
- •
- Feminist Theory, International Law, Gender Equality, International economic law

One of the most striking developments in European labour markets over the last half-century has been the huge rise in women’s labour market participation. Both the lengthening of working lives and migration have further boosted the EU workforce despite unfavourable demographic trends. This report analyses how these large increases in labour supply have been distributed by sector, by occupation and across the wage distribution. The focus is in particular on workforce feminisation.
Although there are many more women at work now than a generation ago, women and men continue to work largely in different types of jobs. Fewer than one in five workers are in jobs where the workforce includes at least 40% of each gender. The increase in women’s employment has been seen largely in jobs where women already predominate. These include many of the sectors with the highest employment growth rates in developed economies over the last two generations and where, owing to demographic shifts, demand is likely to continue expanding in the years to come – health and residential care, for example. Structurally declining sectors – such as agriculture and manufacturing – on the other hand tend to be dominated by men. Women are also outperforming men educationally. Despite these relatively favourable developments, gender gaps in employment and wages have been contracting only gradually in recent years. This report seeks to make connections between changes in employment structure, sociodemographic trends and the persisting differences in labour market outcomes for men and women.

- by Marta Fana
- •
- Gender Wage Gap, Structural Change, Wages, Tasks

This paper studies the effect of working hours on vertical sex segregation using Belgian micro-data on promotions. Using Yun decompositions we find that more than 40 percent of the promotion gaps between men and women can be explained by gender differences in contract hours, overtime hours and occasional late work. The fact that women often work in sectors that offer less promotion possibilities is another important factor. The presence of children strongly affects the promotion chances of female employees, but not those of the male employees in our sample. This evidence supports theories that relate the availability of part-time work to the degree of vertical segregation in countries.

- by Nick Deschacht
- •
- Gender Studies, Promotions, Glass Ceiling, Gender Wage Gap

The first study of the gender wage gap in Ontario's retail sector.

- by Kendra Coulter
- •
- Gender, Gender and Work, Retail, Work and Labour

The death of Trayvon Martin sparked a series of responses across the U.S., including the birth of grassroots movements, Black Lives Matter (BLM), and state-sponsored initiatives such as My Brother’s Keeper (MBK). With the growing protests and concern over structural inequalities, the MBK initiative has gained significant attention and financial support. This article considers to what extent MBK misses a real opportunity to improve the lives of youth of color by recycling much of the problematic assumptions of its 1965 predecessor, the Moynihan Report. It seeks to raise key questions such as, to what extent does MBK reinforce structural inequalities by creating the conditions for an oppositional sexual politics? And in what ways does MBK serve as strategy of containment that restricts protest and ultimately societal transformation? Altogether, these concerns carry new significance in the context of continued protests against state-sanctioned violence targeting “Black lives” and “Black life.”

Using Michigan Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID) data, the authors study the slowdown in the convergence of female and male wages in the 1990s compared to the 1980s. They find that changes in human capital did not contribute to the slowdown, since women's relative human capital improved comparably in the two decades. Occupational upgrading and deunionization had a larger

- by Lawrence Kahn
- •
- Industrial And Labor Relations, Sociology, Human Capital, Applied Economics
- by Coral Negron
- •
- Gender Studies, Gender Equality, Gender Wage Gap
- by Jesus Palomo
- •
- Business, Computer Science, Gender Studies, Decision Making

Flexibility or rigidity of wage policies has been the main source of wage theories. In the USA, there has been interiorized a flexible wage system, where the liberalism actors in, on the whole upward flexible, resistant to crisis and providing permanent employment. It can be mentioned that the factors, which are like sectoral, social, employee composition, effective on wage differentials. Wages to be flexible generally have a content effect on the macro indicators. Wage regimes, which implemented in Turkey, induced recessive economy, under competition and unproductiveness on product. Rigid wages would be tempting if the social additional wages. The basic goal of that comparison is, to shape an optimum satisfaction in terms of the sides of wage.

Despite the fact that women significantly outnumber men in the publishing industry, surveys and journalistic accounts reported from both the United States and the United Kingdom over the last 10 years tell us that women working in the industry are subjected to high rates of sexual harassment, a culture of circumscribed professional advancement, and a significant wage gap in favour of men. In this report, I explore how and why these features of gender inequity flourish in the publishing industry, and investigate to what extent the Canadian publishing industry is plagued by similar issues. Furthermore, I discuss the homogeneity of the publishing industry, and the ways in which women who aren’t able-bodied, straight, white, and cis-gendered face unique obstacles in the industry. The report closes with a discussion of recent shifts in the publishing industry which impact women and people from marginalized communities. In addition to highlighting a fundamental lack of robust data, I point to vital gaps in our understanding of intersectional gender inequity in the Canadian publishing industry, and make recommendations for further study.

- by Stephanie Toth
- •
- Publishing, Gender Equity, Glass Ceiling, Gender Wage Gap

Gender wage gap is an European and International socioeconomic phenomenon with a negative contribution to the efforts of social cohesion, integrity and creation of a solidarity economy. In national level, efforts for the identification and elimination of the gender pay gap have already started since 1970. Although, the phenomenon of the pay gap was been moderated, it still remains at levels above the European average. The analysis and confrontation of the multifactorial phenomenon requires a holistic approach. Women can actively contribute to employment and economic and social development through the improvement and enhancement of their skills and their general qualifications. However, their skills are often underestimated in respect to their payment and their hierarchy in the labour market. This paper studies the case of Greece by estimating the factors that generate the gender wage gap and the glass ceiling phenomenon through the analysis of micro data from 2010 Earnings Survey provided by the Hellenic Statistical Authority (ELSTAT). We estimate pooled quantile regressions as well as quantile regressions, and we carry out a decomposition analysis by applying the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition technique. The results reveal that the wage gap is mainly formed due to the discrimination of gender (men and women with the same characteristics receive different wages – female wages are significantly lower). Moreover, we approach the glass ceiling phenomenon which is mainly caused due to personal characteristics of individuals.

- by Miltiadis Staboulis
- •
- Socio-Economic Status, Gender Wage Gap, Glass Ceiling Effect, SSE

The gender pay-gap is not a new phenomenon in Brazil. Since the increase of female participation on the labor market, the gap has remained a persistent problem that has generated a wide range of studies on the topic. The Human Capital Theory argues that individuals' education and on-the-job experience are essential determinants on wage estimations. This assessment is not disputed in the literature however; there are still differences on wages that are not explained by the traditional variables suggested in the theory. These differences are usually attributed to active discrimination against women. This study suggests that discrimination is not just one reason behind the gap but instead, it is the most relevant reason since women have achieved equal or even higher productive characteristics as men and their ability on obtaining financial compensation for their work is being severely affected.

: This article aims to measure the pay gap and the impact of discrimination based on gender and
color in the Brazilian labor market, from the National Household Survey microdata, 2013. Therefore, the
estimated Mincer equations and applied in the Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition. The results show that the wage
gap is unfavorable to the working woman, being productive attributes and the occupations the most relevant
factors to reduce these differences. Overall, female discrimination is positively associated to productive
attributes and the type of civil union, and negatively to the area of residence and occupation exercised. Among
white workers, the wage gap and discrimination in women's wages are higher than in the group of individuals
(white and non-white). Among non-whites, gender discrimination was higher than among whites, however the
difference and the impact of wage discrimination was lower than among whites, and the occupation and the
urban area of residence influenced the reduction of this discrimination. The gender and color, together,
leverage wage differentials in Brazil. The traits of individuals explain one quarter of these differences and
gender discrimination and color the remaining three bedrooms. Based on the outstanding results it is concluded
that there is need for public policies to economic activities of women and nonwhites in Brazil. Given the
relevance of this contemporary theme, both for the country and for the world, this has recently been treated in
global economic conventions.

- by Flavio K Fiuza-Moura and +2
- •
- Economics, Labor Economics, Feminist Theory, Brazilian Studies

This paper analyzes the life-cycle career costs associated with child rearing and decomposes their effects into unearned wages (as women drop out of the labor market), loss of human capital, and selection into more child-friendly occupations. We estimate a dynamic life-cycle model of fertility, occupational choice, and labor supply using detailed survey and administrative data for Germany for numerous birth

- by J. Adda and +1
- •
- Human Capital, Gender Wage Gap, Labor Market, Life Cycle

On January 1, 1912, a state law in Massachusetts went into effect that reduced the number of hours women and children under the age of 18 could work each week from 56 to 54. The loss of two hours’ pay was enough to make the workers’ meager wages too low to feed the family for a week. When the workers saw their reduced paychecks, they walked out on what became a violent strike between workers and the mill owners.

- by Beth Emmerling
- •
- Labor unions, New England (History), Gender Wage Gap, Strikes