Johan Galtung Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

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- Johan Galtung, Paix Positive Et Paix Negative
- by Joseph Nevins
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- Diplomatic History, American Studies, Violence, Human Rights Law

Conferencia en la cátedra de la paz de la Universidad EAFIT (Medellín).

- by Jerónimo Molina Cano
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- Pacifism, Polemology, Johan Galtung, Gaston Bouthoul

Tracing the political development of the Chechen Republic since its secessionist movement in the 1990s, this essay illustrates that the Islamic republic has been gradually pacified and stabilized by unpeaceful means: Authoritarian Conflict Management (ACM) and subcontracting authoritarian governance to the de facto autonomous ruler Ramzan Kadyrov. Building on concepts by Max Weber, Immanuel Kant, and Johan Galtung, this essay acknowledges that the notions of stability and peace concern two dimensions: 1. federal Moscow-Chechnya relations, 2. Chechnya’s internal balance. Though both dimensions evidently stabilized on a basis of coercion (especially by the use of regional networks and the blood feud system by pro-Kremlin Kadyrov), the emerging institutional framework exposes sources of instability, as it depends on individual relationships. Democratic innovations would even pose a threat to this established stability. Additionally, social integration of Chechnya into the Federation might be hampered by ethnic nationalism and xenophobia in Russian society. On the Chechen side, a ‘Russian’ identity is fragile. The collective memory still remembers Russian repressions vividly. Quantitative figures suggest pacification alongside the negative definition of peace. However, the case of Chechnya indicates that positive definitions (e.g. by Galtung) cannot be measured dichotomously; structural violence characterizes Chechen society, but, at the same time, a certain form of social integration took place.

- by Ted Remington
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- Media Studies, Peace and Conflict Studies, Film Studies, Gender and Sexuality

This dissertation is about freedom and peace, inclusion and democracy. In many ways, it is an account of liberal peace, albeit not similar to the well-known theory of democratic “peace”. Instead, it is a critical examination of the fundamentals of that theory – an examination that cuts its conception of democracy into pieces, and by so doing reveals its actual impact on global peace(s).

- by Tiina Vaittinen
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, Democratic Peace Theory, Johan Galtung

A textual analysis via critical discourse analysis and content analysis is undertaken to examine how horse racing is covered in Melbourne’s two principal newspapers and what primary themes are present. Horse racing is a significant cultural and economic activity in Australia and is thus worthwhile examining how the sport is represented by the press and how racing’s sociocultural role is communicated. A two-week sample period is selected and noteworthy articles gathered for further examination and detailed analysis. A number of themes emerged from the data which have been contextualised within the thesis. Additionally, research on news values and the political economy of the two newspapers along with different elements of the horse racing industry including general scholarship, equine welfare, fashion and social activities and social policy is discussed in order to frame the study.
It is found that both newspapers expressed both positive and negative sentiments about the sport with no evidence of extreme bias. Several recurring themes emerged from the sample; these include articles discussing horse welfare, racing’s history, tradition and social practices (clustered under the label ‘sociocultural’), the internationalism of the sport, gambling, social policy and the fashion and social aspects of racing. It is also established that the newspapers portrayed racing as having a significant sociocultural function within Australia.
These results are significant as they convey the prominence of horse racing both as an industry and as a popular form of entertainment. The examination of the key themes provides an overview of the most noteworthy elements of horse racing as presented by the news media which would provide useful information for the sport’s governing bodies while offering insight into the news values of each publication. Finally, as the industry is prone to criticism, especially from animal activists, presenting evidence of its sociocultural importance provides important justification for its continuation in the face of condemnation.

- by Teigan Kozina
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- Media Studies, Content Analysis, Horse culture, Critical Discourse Analysis

Johan Galtung, professor of Peace Studies, was born in 1930 in Oslo, Norway. He is a mathematician, sociologist, political scientist and the founder of the discipline of Peace Stu-dies. He founded the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO, 1959), the world's first academic re-search center focused on Peace Stud-ies, as well as the influential Journal of Peace Research (1964). He has helped to found dozens of other peace centers around the world. He is cur-rently the president of the Galtung-Institute for Peace Theory & Peace Practice. He has mediated in over 150 conflicts between states, nations, religions, civilizations, commu-nities, and persons since 1957. His contributions to peace theory and practice include conceptual-ization of peace-building, conflict mediation, reconciliation, nonviolence, theory of structural vio-lence, theorizing about negative vs. positive peace, peace education and peace journalism. In his interview, he speaks about today’s conflicts, the sources of cultural violence and the golden rule of mediation. He also touches the problem of regional security in Europe and Asia, de-velopment of Peace Studies and the greatest challenges facing the world today.

- by Fernando Montiel T. and +1
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- Educación, Pedagogía Crítica, Estudios sobre Violencia y Conflicto, Ciencias Sociales
- by Melih Coşgun
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, Chantal Mouffe, Adalet, Johan Galtung

En este libro Johan Galtung examina la ética política de Gandhi así como sus conceptos fundamentales. Se trata, al mismo tiempo, de una introducción a la epistemología gandhiana y de una traducción de su discurso teórico y práctico en... more

- by Fernando Montiel T. and +1
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- Colonialismo, Desarrollo Local / Local Development, Mahatma Gandhi, Cooperación Internacional Para El Desarrollo

This paper analyses the Yuddha Kand, the war between Ram and Ravan depicted in the great epic Ramayana using Johan Galtungs’s ABC triangle. This paper examines the trends that led to the war, and how the subsequent canonisation of the parable of the same has had lasting consequences on the social fabric of the nation-state of India, the early mitigation of which could have perhaps, led to the prevention of certain moral biases. The relevance of this moral biases has had outstanding consequences in the 21st century, when we see issues like the Ayodhya-BabriMasjid dispute become politicised and become flagship policy issues that political parties champion to “solve” as a part of their political mandate during elections, often leading to communal tensions and violence.

- by Arunima Cheruvathoor
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, War Studies, Ramayana, Johan Galtung

This paper compares the coverage of Kashmir Conflict in four English language dailies: two from Pakistan; DAWN and The Nation, and two from India; 'The HINDU' and 'Times of India' by employing Galtung's Model of Peace Journalism (Galtung, 1986; 1998) and Lynch & McGoldrick's (2005) Two-Sided Conflict Model. The study pursues two research questions; is the coverage of these newspaper war or peace-oriented, and do they report Kashmir Conflict through Two-Party (Pak-India) or Multi-Party lenses. For data sources, seven major recent events; Burhan Wani's killing (2016), Uri Attack, Indian Surgical Strikes, Pulwama Attack, Balakot Airstrike, and Abhi Nandan's Capture and Release (2019) were chosen. A total of 56 stories, one lead story and one editorial from each newspaper about every event, were collected. Each story was evaluated according to Galtung's 19 indicators; nine War, nine Peace and one Neutral, and accordingly categorized. The analysis revealed that DAWN had the highest (46.15%) peace-oriented coverage while The HINDU was second with only 23% peace content. In the war category, The Nation scored the highest (100%) while the Times of India was found second (92.85%). No story could qualify for the neutral category. Overall, the coverage of these newspapers was found grossly (81.13%) war-oriented. Moreover, in the coverage of the Kashmir Conflict, the media succumb to the Two-Sided Model, projecting Pakistani and Indian states as the only legitimate parties while Kashmiris are portrayed as mere passive victims. These newspapers also focus only on visible effects and heavily rely on elite positions. The purpose of this study was to examine how much Peace Journalism-being reasonably advocated throughout the last decade in the Subcontinent-has changed the attitude of our media towards peace reporting.

- by Azmat Khan and +1
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- Content Analysis, Critical Discourse Analysis, Peace Journalism, Newspapers

Individual or group identities based upon religion are able to cause political activation affecting cogency of governments and their policies. Imprint of religion on state's politics affect the secularity of any federation and thus has the capacity of impact the existing political complexities and conflicts rooted in religious and political identities. The rationale of this research paper is to analyze if Indian oscillatory political behaviour fits neatly into the theoretical framework of Johan Galtung's Conflict Triangle. The research paper seeks to (i) analyze radicalization of Indian society on the basis of Hindutva, (ii) validates that Indian politics transitioned from secularity to extremism under Modi's Hindutva Nationalism and (iii) Indian political radicalization has worsened the already precarious situation of Kashmir Conflict. The paper in light of given framework fills the existing niche that Indian political extremism has transformed a relatively non-conflictual situation into a fully brewed conflict.

- by Arslan Bin Shahid and +1
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, India-Pakistan Relations, Kashmir Conflict, Johan Galtung

This course will examine the processes, drivers, and theories of social change—significant alterations in social structures and cultural patterns—through a variety of sociological perspectives. Through a focus on the causes, patterns, strategies, mechanics, and consequences of broad-based socio-political contestation and transformation we will explore how, why and when change occurs. By adopting a sociological imagination, students will be guided through the classical and contemporary theories of social change, and will explore their histories, premises and applications. This will be complimented by a series of diverse guest speakers who will provide their own perspectives on social change drawn from experiential knowledge and research. While the class will focus on macro-level changes, it will also include an investigation of personal, inter-personal, consumer, and micro-levels of social change. Students will examine the basics of social movement theory, notions of state power and coercion, forms of traditional and contentious politics, and individual subjectivity, to answer a central question: Why and under what conditions does social change occur?

- by Michael Loadenthal
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- Sociology, Social Change, Social Movements, Criminal Law

Merkez-çevre teorileri pek çok teorinin temelini teşkil etmektedir. Geçmişi, Bağımlılık Teorilerine dayanan bu teori modern dünya sistemini açıklamaya çalışan teorilerin en önemlilerinden biridir. Merkez ve Çevre kavramlarını siyaset literatürüne kazandıran Amerikalı sosyolog Edward Shils bu teoriye büyük katkı sağlamıştır. Wallerstein, Dünya Sistemi Teorisi ile merkez-çevre teorisini geliştirmiştir. Hegemonya düzenine dayanan modern sistemde, ülkeler gelişmişlik ve azgelişmişlik düzeylerinin yanında çevre ve yarı-çevre olarak da hiyerarşik olarak sınıflandırılırlar. Galtung ise Merkez-Çevre ilişkisini Yapısal Teori bağlamında incelemiştir. Bu çalışmada merkez-çevre teorisinin dayandığı düşünceler incelenecek,Shil’in,Wallerstein’nın ve Galtung’un teoriye olan bakış açıları analiz edilecektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Merkez-Çevre Teorisi, Bağımlılık Teorisi, Edward Shils, Wallerstein, Galtung.

- by Ecem DERELİ ÖZKUMOVA
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- Immanuel Wallerstein, Edward Shils, Johan Galtung, merkez-çevre teorisi

Our world is full of ideas about the way that humans should live. Some of these ideas create a more beautiful and equal world that we all want to live in, while other ideas create violence, hatred, inequality, and suffering. Some of us care an awful lot about beautiful ideas; we care enough to fight for them and spend our lives working towards them, and we care enough to resist. Resistance takes many forms, however, and there are many ideas about the most effective and correct ways to resist. “Elements of Resistance” attempts to transcend the false binary of nonviolent and violent resistance, and looks at the heart and soul of what it means to resist, why we resist, and what some different methods of effective resistance might look like. Drawing from recent work by social theorists and activists such as Derrick Jensen, Ward Churchill, Shane Claiborne, Johann Galtung, and Peter Gelderloos, as well as the work of Frantz Fanon, Henry Thoreau, Martin Luther King, Jr., Nelson Mandela, and Mohandas Gandhi, this book is an exploration into the history, theory, and necessity of resistance to oppression.

- by Jeriah Bowser
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- Violence, Anarchism, Liberation Theology, Political Extremism/Radicalism/Populism
- by Jonilda Rrapaj, PhD
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- Peace Studies, Peace Research, Peacebuilding, Structural Violence

Violence is a confounding concept. It frequently defies explanation and lacks an agreed upon definition. Yet geographers are well positioned to bring greater conceptual clarity to violence by thinking through its intersections with space. In setting the tone for this special issue on Violence and Space we highlight some of the key lines of flight that have shaped geographical thinking on violence. While there are a significant number of geographers interested in the question of violence, the field of ‘geographies of violence’ remains an emerging area of research that deserves greater attention and a more rigorous examination. By emphasizing the spatiality of violence, this special issue aims to contribute to a more sustained conversation on the violent geographies that shape our daily lives, our encounters with institutions, and the various structures that configure our social organization. This introduction is but an initial sketch of what we believe needs to be a much larger and unfolding research agenda dedicated to understanding violence from a geographical perspective.

- by Simon Springer
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- Critical Theory, Sociology, Political Sociology, Social Theory
- by Abdullatif El Ali
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- Marxism, Interest, Exploitation, Imperialism

The academic study of peace—commonly referred to as Peace Studies (PS) or Peace and Conflict Studies (PCS)—has made key contributions to a variety of interrelated fields over the last century. While the pursuit of peace has ancient roots and histories, as a discernable aim of scholarship, it dates back to the period following World War I (1914–1918), gaining wider support and interest following the end of World War II (1945). Since 2000, this interest has taken great strides towards institutionalization through the establishment and expansion of curricula, peace studies programs in post-secondary education, academic journals and books, and the rise of academic associations and conferences focused on the promotion of peace. What began as a reflective process—one that aimed to understand the geopolitical constitution that led to inter-state armed conflict—has since blossomed into a global interdisciplinary field of scholarship and practice. This collection highlights contemporary schools in this field, investigating the history of peace scholarship from various perspectives and through multiple cases studies. Prior to surveying the contributions contained in this collection, it is beneficial to provide an overview of the salient discourses in the field, broken down into four key areas: 1. understanding violence through a multi-layered and structured analysis, 2. critiquing negative peace while promoting positive peace (both defined below), 3. the promotion of peace education and research, and, 4. the promotion of non-violence, social change, and the prefiguration of a more peaceful world.

- by Michael Loadenthal
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- History, Philosophy, Peace and Conflict Studies, Violence

The Viking Age has long been understood to be a time of great violence. However, research in the last 50 or so years has tended to focus only on more peaceful aspects of Nordic cultures during that period. This thesis works to change that, and tries to find ways to bring violence back into the fold. The aim of this project is to test Johan Galtung’s needs-based typology of violence against Viking Age Nordic practices, and to determine whether the application of these typologies affects our images of the Viking Age. The concepts of the Viking Age itself, and of how violence can be defined, are also explored. Further, the thesis seeks to understand how violence in the Viking Age became a potential cultural norm, how it manifested, and how these manifestations can be identified in the archaeological record. The results show that, though his typology and definitions of violence were written for the study of modern societies, Galtung’s research is invaluable to archaeological understandings of violence, which was found to have pervaded Nordic societies in a variety of surprising ways.

- by Nadine LaPonza
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- Archaeology, Prehistoric Archaeology, Violence, Well-Being
- by Marcos Alan Ferreira
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, Conflict, Organized Crime, Conflict Resolution

【主張】
藤田明史：安倍首相の国連演説での「積極的平和主義」という言葉について
野島大輔：現在の危機を「トランセンド」するための４つの提案
【活動報告】
淺川和也：フィリピン（ネグロス・バコロド）における平和教育セミナー報告
【講演記録】
マーチン・クムシエ：パレスチナの平和と人権を守るために―イスラエルの占領の論理を批判する
【Research Paper】
Yoshito Dobashi/Dobby：Reconciliation Process: Trauma of a Victim Who Became Disabled in a Car Accident in Fiji
【論文】
高部優子：“平和”を人権に―国連人権委員会で議論されている「平和への権利」―藤田明史：ヒロシマ・ナガサキの経験をいかに普遍化するか―被爆作家・大田洋子の文学から考える―
杉田明宏・いとうたけひこ・井上孝代：アニメ『みんながHappyになる方法』による平和学習―平和博物館における活用を展望して―

- by Transcend Japan
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, Conflict Resolution, Peace Education, Johan Galtung

Barış çalışmalarında II. Dünya Savaşı sonrasında Norveçli düşünür Johan Galtung ile başlayan bir açılım yaşanmıştır. Bunun en önemli nedeni Galtung’un sadeliğine rağmen çatışmaların çözümündeki işlevselliğiyle kendine yer bulan kapsamlı çalışmaları ve uluslararası düzeydeki aktivizmidir. Özellikle Galtung’un çalışmaları ile başlayan tartışmalar araştırma merkezleriyle birlikte kurumsal bir yapılanmanın da önünü açmış ve barış çalışmalarının güçlenmesine imkan sağlamıştır. Bugün gelinen noktada barış çalışmaları literatüründe yürütülen tartışmalarda Galtung’un barış, şiddet ve çatışma kavramlarına yönelik çizdiği kavramsal ve kuramsal çerçevenin izlerini kolaylıkla görmek mümkündür. Ancak bu izleri doğru bir şekilde takip edebilmek, Galtung’un barış çalışmalarına katkılarını net bir şekilde ortaya koymak ile mümkündür. Bu amaçla, çalışmada Galtung’u anlamak için kullanılacak anahtar kavramlar ve bu kavramlar ile barış çalışmalarındaki etkisi ele alınarak genel bir çerçeve ortaya konulacaktır.

- by Kıvılcım Romya Bilgin (Ph.D)
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- şiddet, Johan Galtung, Barış çalışmaları

The Peace Agreement of 2016 between the Colombian government and the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia - People's Army raised hopes after decades of internal armed conflict, but the levels of violence continue to be high in rural areas. Cauca is the department of Colombia where most social leaders and human rights defenders have been killed since 2016. To resist violence, to defend life and the territories, and to uphold rule of law based on the 1991 Colombian Constitution, the Indigenous Guards of the Regional Indigenous Council of Cauca use an integral method of nonviolence in the everyday setting. The aim of this study is to understand the impact of this method, perceived by the local people, as an alternative way to create peace in Colombia with concepts defined by Johan Galtung. With a decolonial research approach, an exemplifying qualitative comparative case study with fieldwork for the data collection has been carried out in Cauca, to give voice to and learn from the local communities. The results show a complex situation of an uneven progress of conflict transformation within the department, with significant economic inequalities. The challenges of cyclical war on a small scale are occurring, as in the case of the Proyecto Nasa in the Municipality of Toribío. At once, the possibilities of using this method to break the cycles of war through the power of asymmetry have occurred by conflict resolutions of dialogs with armed actors, as in the case of the resguardo of Paletará in the Municipality of Puracé Coconuco. It is claimed that by strengthening the institution of the Indigenous Guards, the collective actions of peacekeeping and peacebuilding in the territories can improve the process of conflict transformation by revitalizing the implementation of the 2016 Peace Agreement with its territorial focus and the ethnic chapter.

- by Mimmi Clase Hagman
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- Colombia, Nonviolence, Regionalism, Peacekeeping

In this essay it is argued that the R2P norm and framework did not emerge from a Western neoimperial agenda, on the contrary, it has African roots and it was developed by a global representative group. The essay draws in Galtung's Structural Theory of Imperialism to make sense of some of the critique against R2P, and engages in the fiercely debated theme of sovereignty. It also engages with case studies, particularly Iraq and Kenya, to analyse different applications of the norm. The core argument is that we must distinguish between the actual norm and its rather unfortunate track record, and that the norm can in fact serve to counter imperialistic tendencies.

- by Henrik Mathias Hvaal
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- United Nations, Humanitarian Intervention, Neoimperialism, Imperialism

Glavni cilj članka je da predstavi naučnu disciplinu Rešavanja sukoba (Conflict Resolution), tačnije da prikaže i analizira razvoj discipline i njeno izdvajanje iz polja Međunarodnih odnosa, kao posebne akademske discipline. Pored toga, cilj rada je da pruži teorijski okvir kroz koji je moguće sagledati i proceniti ulogu religije u sukobima i procesima koji imaju za cilj da dovedu do prestanka nasilja, stvaranja mirnog okruženja i izgradnje samoodrživog i trajnog mira među sukobljenim stranama. U prvom delu, prikazane se tri glavne struje u okviru same discipline rešavanja sukoba – severnoamerička škola Keneta Bouldinga, skandinavsko shvatanje sukoba Johana Galtunga, kao i radikalni pristup rešavanju sukoba Džona Bartona. Poseban naglasak je stavljen na Galtungov TRANSCEND pristup u okviru rešavanja mega-sukoba među religijama. Drugi deo rada predstavlja transcendentnu i imanentnu komponentu religije, pitanje opšte uloge i značaja religije, filozofsko-teološko poimanje mira i nenasilja u najvećim svetskim religijama. Dodatno, analiziraju se uzroci religijskih sukoba, dvostranost religije kao potencijalnog faktora sukoba i ratova, pomirenja i mira, te se daju primeri dobre i loše prakse kada je reč o njenoj ulozi u izazivanju i rešavanju sukoba.

- by Stefan Radojković, PhD and +1
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- Religion, Peace and Conflict Studies, Conflict Resolution, Peace Studies

2005.“বিজ্ঞান-বাজার-রাষ্ট্র”Imperialism: A Feudo-Capitalist regime. (book) Kolkata: অন্যস্বর/Other Voice. Jan’05 (pp. 143-49)

In: Winand, E.; Rodrigues, T. and Aguilar, S. (2016). Defesa e Segurança no Atlântico Sul. Aracaju: UFS Press.

- by Transcend Japan
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, Conflict Resolution, Peace Education, Johan Galtung
- by Kolja Möller
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- Violence, Theodor Adorno, Systems Theory, Walter Benjamin
- by Sohail Inayatullah
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- Complexity, Ibn Khaldun, Futures Studies, Macrohistory

This paper aims to identify and analyse struggles and issues of Indigenous People linking them to Galtung’s theory of structural violence. Nonetheless, the starting point of this essay is the identification and analysis of violence that, according to Galtung is defined as an "avoidable insults to essential human needs, and more generally to life (...) Even the threats of violence are violence". Through the exploration of a case study, the essay aims at explaining how the dispossession of Indigenous People ‘source can be analysed as a documented structurally violent project which has a heavy impact on the future of the Indigenous Population.

In recent years, the study of friendship has gained traction in political science. The aim of this article is threefold: (1) to offer an overview of the status of friendship studies and how it relates to the emotional turn in international relations, (2) to present a wide variety of different approaches to studying friendship, and (3) to highlight the contribution that a friendship perspective can make to other fields, such as Peace and Conflict Studies. From Aristotle and Plato onwards, we trace the development of the concept of friendship, and present several theoretical conceptualisations and methodological approaches that can be readily applied when making sense of friendship, both on a personal level between elite actors, and on the international level between states. We end by drawing attention to the merit of the study of friendship specifically for the field of Peace and Conflict Studies, where it helps to address the lacuna of research on positive peace.

RESUMO: Este trabalho busca abordar os conceitos de violência estrutural, direta e, sobretudo, a cultural, expressos nas relações internacionais (mais propriamente entre sociedades, do que Estados), baseando-se na compreensão do sociólogo norueguês Johan Galtung acerca dos conflitos sociais e a violência organizada. Tem-se por proposta aplicar aos temas transnacionais: A) Terrorismo como forma de ação de combate nos conflitos contemporâneos, tendo uma concepção da sociedade errônea daquilo que são os islâmicos, e quem é o terrorista; B) o problema da xenofobia aos imigrantes, a qual por vezes é tratada como problema de segurança nacional, num contexto cuja questão deveria ser levada como políticas de inclusão social, medidas trabalhistas, etc. O raciocínio disposto indica que medidas de violência direta extrema por parte das comunidades políticas fracas (como as praticadas no terrorismo, por exemplo) seria um reflexo da sua falta de recursos em comparação a potências militares tradicionais, por efeito tem-se globalmente uma concepção errada sobre a figura do terrorista, caracterizado por estereótipos culturais. No tema de xenofobia aos imigrantes, quando cidadãos de determinado país não recebem bem os imigrantes que buscam uma vida melhor se sentem ameaçados em termos trabalhistas e segurança doméstica. O objetivo é evidenciar a infeliz realidade das relações sociais contemporâneas, expressa pela compreensão do conceito de violência cultural, o qual compõe um dos grandes males da contemporaneidade e está evidente no cotidiano da sociedade civil, que por muitas vezes não se da conta, mas que manifestam este tipo de violência. Apesar de ambos os temas corresponderem a esferas internacionais de ordem distinta, é importante destacar que os dois retratam efeitos sociais semelhantes, a saber, o preconceito e o racismo com determinadas comunidades sociais internacionais.

Building a global culture of peace includes myriad components and a variety of platforms with which to engage and transform violence. The seminal article ‘Cultural Violence’ (Galtung, 1990) illuminated cultural variables responsible for legitimizing physical and structural violence in society. The following paper seeks to examine whether or not the theoretical construct of cultural violence (CV) may have a functional opposite—cultural nonviolence (CNV). In order to explore this cultural violence will be defined and two cultural incarnations of non-harming—Gandhian ahimsā and pragmatic nonviolence—will be compared and contrasted. While pragmatic nonviolence can be considered instrumental in the reduction of physical violence only Gandhian ahimsā can be considered a form of cultural nonviolence.

- by Katerina Standish
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- Peace and Conflict Studies, Nonviolence, Ghandhi, Cultural Violence

Galtung'un çatışma çözümü yaklaşımı, özellikle doksanlı yıllarla birlikte ortaya çıkan çatışma nedenlerini ortaya çıkarma, azaltma ve yok etmeyi veya çatışmaları aşarak dönüştürmeyi hedefleyen yöntemler dizgesidir. " Çatışmaları Aşarak Dönüştürmek: Çatışma Çözümüne Giriş " kitabı, barış araştırmaları ve çatışma çözümü yöntemleri alanında tüm dünyada bir otorite olarak kabul edilen Johan Galtung'un çok önemli çalışmalarından biridir. Galtung, 1959'da Oslo'da kurduğu dünyanın ilk Barış Araştırmaları Enstitüsü, pek çok barış projesi, 100'e yakın kitap, 1000'den fazla makale ve pek çok çatışma çözümü sürecine aktif katılım ile dünya barışına çok değerli sistematik katkılarda bulunmuştur. 2 " Çatışmaları Aşarak Dönüştürmek: Çatışma Çözümüne Giriş " kitabına Galtung, çatışmaların 'yüksek' veya 'alçak' şeklindeki hiyerarşik yaklaşıma maruz kalmalarına karşı çıkarak, çatışmaların eşit zeminde cereyan ettiklerini işaret ederek başlamaktadır. Buna göre ise, çatışmalara yaklaşımda amacın, çatışma çözümü sonrasında taraflar için sürekli ve memnun edici bir sonucun ortaya çıkarılması gerektiğini vurgular. Bunun da, çatışmalara ciddi yaklaşım, çatışmayı aşma ve çatışmaları dönüştürme iradesi ile mümkün olacağını söyler. Hayatta kalma, iyi yaşama, özgürlük, kimlik gibi temel insani ihtiyaçlar adına yapılan çatışmalarda, çatışma tarafları için kazan-kaybet durumunun olmadığını belirtir. Galtung'a göre çatışmanın temelinde çelişki yatmaktadır ve her çatışmanın temelinde birbiriyle uzlaşmayan en az iki çelişkili gaye vardır. Buna göre, bazı gayeler diğerleri üzerinde önceliğe sahiptir. Bunlar, yaşamsal vazgeçilmez olan temel ihtiyaçlardır. Beka, refah, özgürlük ve kimlik bu temel gereksinimleri yansıtmaktadır. Galtung'a göre, değerler veya gayeler hususunda pazarlık olabilir, ancak temel gereksinimler konusunda bu mümkün değildir ve temel gereksinimler pazarlık konusu olamazlar ve mutlak saygıyla karşılanmalıdır. Bu genel prensipler çerçevesinde, çalışma, " Çatışma Önleme " yerine, " şiddeti önleme " odaklı bir yol izliyor. Galtung çatışma olgusunu 4 ayrı düzlemde ele almaktadır. Bu düzlemler, kişinin kendisiyle ve başkalarıyla yaşadığı mikro çatışmalar, toplumsal düzeyde yaşanan orta büyüklükteki (Meso) çatışmalar, uluslararası nitelikli makro çatışmalar, bölgeler ve medeniyetler arası mega çatışmalardır. Çatışmalar, çatışma çözümü ile ilgili sistemik yaklaşımlar yedi bölümde ele alınarak incelenmektedir. İlk bölümde, kişinin kendisiyle ve başkalarıyla yaşadığı mikro çatışmalar ele alınmaktadır. Galtung bu kısımda, mikro ölçekli çatışmaları ve çatışmaların aşılıp dönüştürülmesini günlük yaşamdan karşılaştığı örnek veya modeller üzerinden anlatmaya çalışmaktadır. Galtung, saldırgan ve örtbas edici iki farklı