Smallholder Farmers Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

- by Oluwaseun Ariyo
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- Dietary Diversity, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences, CHEMICAL SCIENCES

Smallholder farms in developing countries are key to global food security and sustainability of agricultural systems. Suitable tools are needed to assess the utility of these systems for long-term policy interventions. We outline the development of a sustainability index for smallholder systems by amalgamating ecological frameworks and sustainable livelihood framework. We critically describe the process involved in the development of the indicator framework, selection of indicators, their measurement and assignment of weight, and aggregation to arrive at a composite index. A practical tool based on this index may prove helpful for long-term sustainability assessment in smallholder farms of developing countries.

Agricultural sector is a mainstay of farmers' livelihoods in Ethiopia. Maize is a largest crop being grown in Ethiopia; however, currently, yield gaps are the challenges faced by the producers. This study has an objective of identifying the determinants of maize production of smallholder farmers. Data were collected from 200 farmers living in the selected kebeles (communes) of Meta district in the East Hararge zone of Oromia region, Ethiopia. The collected data was analyzed using multiple linear regression model. The result showed that the production of maize was influenced by several factors. Non-farm activity had a positive impact on the production of maize. Thus, the farmers who had money from non-farm sources utilized these additional incomes as inputs to gain more maize production. The cultivated areas of land have a positive influence on the higher yields of maize. The maize crop production of smallholder farmers was negatively affected by Development Agent's office. The study suggests that policy makers should encourage the current maize production by supplying improved seeds and fertilizers, which tend to support improving the smallholder farms.

Fall armyworm (FAW) is native to America and is currently affecting maize production in different parts of Africa, and recently reported in Tanzania. In the present study, FAW infestation levels and their associated management practices were investigated in 90 maize fields in the 18 villages in Arusha, Kilimanjaro and Manyara regions. Infestation levels were assessed using a scale of 0 (no damage) to 9 (100% damage), while the management practices information was collected through a survey and questionnaires from 210 maize growing farmers in the 18 villages. Results showed that all fields were infested by FAW at low (1-4) to moderate (5-7) damage levels. Arusha scored the highest (66.59% and 5.422) significant mean incidence and severity (P<0.05) respectively, followed by Kilimanjaro (52.96%, 4.756) and Manyara (52.64%, 3.989) regions. Variation in damage levels was also observed among villages, with means incidences ranging between 35.57% and 79.55%, and mean severity ranging between 2.333 and 7.267. Variation between regions and villages can be associated with farmer's knowledge and FAW management practices. About 84.3% of farmers reported synthetic pesticides as the main management option, although the majority did not effectively apply them. Farmer's recommendations include awareness creation on the FAW management, provision of effective pesticides and resistant maize varieties, and government intervention in the overall management of FAW. From the findings it is evident that sustainable integrated management strategies against FAW is urgent needed and this study serves as a stepping stone for the development of sustainable management options.

- by INNSPUB Journals
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- Research Methodology, Open Access, Educational Research, Tanzanian Studies
- by Jonathan Nzuma
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- Economics, Agribusiness, Behavioral Economics, Kenya

This study analyzes the vulnerability of smallholder farmers in Wazvaremhaka ward in Chikomba District to climate change based on the integrated vulnerability assessment approach using vulnerability indicators. The vulnerability indicators consist of the different socioeconomic and biophysical attributes of Wazvaremhaka’s agriculture-based households. Seventeen environmental and socio-economic indicators are identified to reflect the three components of vulnerability: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. Using data gathered from a survey carried out in Chikomba district in Zimbabwe, descriptive statistics analysis was undertaken to characterize the households, in terms of age, marital status, family size, education of the household head, asset ownership of the household, coping strategies, perceptions of climate change and also institutions working with communities and how they are enhancing people’s ability to cope with climate change. From the analysis done on the original variables, vulnerability proved to be significantly varying from one household to the other. Vulnerability indices of the households range from -9.8 to 6.51 with households having low negative values less vulnerable to climate change compared to those with high positive values. In this regard, households were ranked according to their vulnerability levels with the household having largest value ranked number one in terms of vulnerability and the one with the lowest index ranked last. The study reveals that 74.2% of the households in the study area are either vulnerable or highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change and only an insignificant (25.8%) was discovered to be either less vulnerable or moderately vulnerable to climate change. Vulnerability of the households in the study area is attributed to age of the household head, poultry size, farm size, access to loans and environmental problems faced by the framers as denoted by their high positive index values. The statistical tests the vulnerability indices were subjected to proved that there was relative unanimity among components in the ranking of the households. This was proved by Kendall’s Coefficient of Concordance value of 0.303. This therefore means that the indicators used in the analysis best explain and uncover vulnerability in Wazvaremhaka ward. This was strengthened by a Chi-square value of 87.263 which means that there is concordance in ranking households’ vulnerabilities according to the vulnerability components identified in this research.

This paper reviews the empirical evidence on smallholder farmers' market participation focusing on cash/food crops and livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with special attention on the methodological approaches employed in this region in an attempt to x-ray these methods, identifying their advantages and limitations and possible means smallholder farmers would be able to transit from subsistence to commercialised agriculture capable of lifting them out of poverty trap that seems to have engulfed many rural SSA. This paper recommends interventions geared towards improving smallholder farmers' organisation, producers' association and ensuring appreciable reduction in transaction costs and also improving farmers' access to productive assets and improved technologies capable of stimulating profitable smallholders' market participation.

- by Leon Nabahungu
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- Agronomy, Agriculture, Wetland, Farmers Livelihood

This paper reviews the empirical evidence on smallholder farmers’ market participation focusing on cash/food crops and livestock in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with special attention on the methodological approaches employed in this region in an attempt to x-ray these methods, identifying their advantages and limitations and possible means smallholder farmers would be able to transit from subsistence to commercialised agriculture capable of lifting them out of poverty trap that seems to have engulfed many rural SSA. This paper recommends interventions geared towards improving smallholder farmers’ organisation, producers’ association and ensuring appreciable reduction in transaction costs and also improving farmers’ access to productive assets and improved technologies capable of stimulating profitable smallholders’ market participation.

This study assesses the agricultural commercialization levels, determinants, and challenges confronting smallholder cassava farmers in Oyo State, Nigeria. This study was conducted in Oyo State, Nigeria using cross-sectional data from 211 smallholder cassava farmers and employing multi-stage sampling procedures. Descriptive statistics, Crop Commercialization Index (CCI), and Ordered Logit Model (OLM) were used to analyze the data collected. The results revealed that 83.9% of the cassava farmers participated in the commercialization of their cassava roots while the remaining farmers were non-participants. The greatest challenge faced by the cassava farmers in the study area was the incessant attacks by the Fulani herdsmen (destroying growing cassava on the farm) while other challenges included cassava cyclical gluts and poor access road. Moreover, OLM revealed that age, farm size, cassava marketing experience and distance to market had significant influence on commercialization levels of cassava farmers. However, in order to enhance increased commercialization levels of cassava farmers and peaceful coexistence in the study area, policies and intervention programmes that will facilitate rural infrastructure development and proffer lasting solution to the farmers-herders crisis should be given upmost priority.

- by Olutosin A Otekunrin and +1
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- Nigeria, Logit & Probit models, Agricultural commercialization, Ordered Logit Model

A first version of this working paper was published in 2015 by GRAESE (Research Group on East and Southeast Asia). The objective of this second edition is to update the picture we drew in 2015 with the latest figures and information available to us. The general intention remains the same. We conceive this document as a resource for students and researchers aiming to understand Cambodian land issues and their historical background.

- by Jean-Christophe Diepart
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- Land tenure, Cambodia, Smallholder Farmers
- by simeon onya
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- Finance, Economics, Development Studies, Cooperatives

Intercropping is a common practice among farmers in sub-Saharan Africa, regarded as a sustainable way of improving land productivity to meet food and nutritional requirements for a growing population, especially in marginal areas. Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp) is often intercropped with major cereal crops, maize (Zea mays L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) and pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.R.Br). Here we conducted a systematic literature review on cowpea intercropped with maize, sorghum or pearl millet reported in sub-Saharan Africa with the objectives (i) to determine yield and productivity of component crops and (ii) to quantify biological N 2-fixation in sole or intercrops. We retrieved 60 unique publications combining 1196, 998 and 25 observations of yields, land productivity and N 2-fixation, respectively, for crops grown as intercrops and monocrops. The major results are as follows: (1) land productivity of cowpea intercropped with maize, sorghum and pearl millet is favourable, with average land equivalent ratios of 1.42 ± 0.47, 1.26 ± 0.35 and 1.30 ± 0.32, respectively; (2) no significant differences between the proportion of nitrogen derived from the atmosphere (%Ndfa) for sole or intercropped cowpea were found, with average values of 56.00 ± 4.89 and 46.62 ± 7.05, respectively; (3) however, the total amount of fixed nitrogen was higher in cowpea monocropping systems due to higher biomass production; nitrogen fixation was 57 kg N ha −1 and 36 kg N ha −1 in monocrops and intercrops respectively. We conclude that cereal-cowpea intercropping is a pathway for intensification for the low nutrient input systems of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Our review also suggests potential for improvement of these systems, based on the choice of the associated varieties, planting patterns and sowing time, cowpea leaf harvesting as a vegetable, and fertilization.

- by Talent Namatsheve
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- Agronomy, Agriculture, Crop Yield, Smallholder Farmers

Climate change is one of the most urgent and complex challenges for societies and economies. Left unaddressed it contains the potential to compromise the well-being of the current and future generations. Smallholder farmers who depend on rain-fed agriculture are heavily affected and it is important to understand what they think about the problem and its impacts so that remedial measures can be tailored to address the same. Hence this study explores how farmers and policy-makers in Ethiopia conceived climate change, factors contributing to it and its impacts. The study is based on a field research conducted from January to May 2012 in Sidama’s three agroecological zones (AEZs), namely, the highlands, midlands and lowlands. It deployed both qualitative and quantitative research method. Data collection involved (a) semi-structured interviews with 15 farmers and 17 policy-makers, (b) focus group discussion with 30 farmers, and (c) a survey of 120 farmers. The novelty of the study lies in exploring and comparing two sets of views (that of local people and the policy- makers) on climate change. Findings revealed that farmers clearly perceived climate risks based on their experience and knowledge of their local environment. The commonly cited indicators of change include high temperature, rainfall, seasonal shifts and incidence of certain diseases. Farmers also identified specific indicators such as change in wind direction, disappearance of plant (crop and tree) species, growing hitherto unfamiliar crops and emergence of new parasites and weeds. Their perceptions of causes of climate change are mixed: deforestation, God’s wrath, human activities, and weakened indigenous practices and values. On the other hand, participants from policy-making community espoused views shared by scientific discourse such as deforestation, global warming and CO2 emissions. The gap in understanding needs to be bridged by information and education of the local public with the policy-makers paying attention to the importance of indigenous knowledge.

- by Seyoum Y Hameso, PhD
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- Climate Change, Climatology, Adaptation, Vulnerability
- by Solomon Gizaw
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- Agriculture, Ethiopia, Animal breeding and genetics, Sheep
- by Katherine Snyder and +1
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- Agronomy, Africa, Agriculture, Environmental Sustainability
- by IDRIS AYINDE
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- Dietary Diversity, Biological Sciences, Environmental Sciences, CHEMICAL SCIENCES

This paper explores the factors that influence diversification into Khat production and its contribution to rural household’s income in Kenya. Using probability and non-probability sampling procedures, a sample of 125 households composed of both Khat producers and non producers was selected. Logit regression was used to estimate the factors that influence participation in Khat production while propensity Score Matching (PSM) was used to assess its contribution to rural household’s income. The factors that enhances participation are access to extension services, number of school going children, agricultural land size, household’s income and main occupation of the household head whereas the factors that hinder participation are age of the household head, distance from the main market and access to credit. Subsequently, Khat production positively contributes to the household’s income. Hence, as an alternative measure to boost the rural household’s income, Khat enterprise should be prom...

- by George Owuor
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- Economics, Diversification, Khat, Propensity Score Matching

In India, Bangladesh and Nepal 70 % of farms are less than 2 ha in size. These subsistence oriented, rain-fed farming systems are highly vulnerable to climate variability. Climate change challenges local food and nutritional security. Adaptation is the key to address these vulnerabilities. Agricultural research and extension systems in the region ignore traditional food systems and culturally accepted food baskets. The EU funded project “Strengthening Adaptive Farming in Bangladesh, India and Nepal (SAF-BIN)”, implemented by Caritas organisa- tions, is building resilience to climate change through strengthening adaptive small scale farming systems in rain-fed areas. In a multi-sectoral collaboration a farmers’ collective-led approach has been implemented with smallholder farmers at the centre. A major tool has been on-farm adaptive research trials in which farmers’ collectives have developed and implemented on-farm trials in ten districts in Bangladesh, India and Nepal with the active involvement of civil society, researchers and government officials. Results are documentation and increased adoption of locally appropriate farming practises achieved through blending tradi- tional and modern practices with awareness on organic, sustainable production. Farmers’ collectives successfully built resilience to climate change, increased yields, improved nutritional security, reduced external dependency, and reduced input costs. SAF-BIN is evolving as a successful model for strengthening adaptive capacities of smallholders. Lessons on integration of a diverse set of stakeholders are transferable and applicable to similar initiatives

- by Romana Roschinsky and +4
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- Participatory Action Research, Climate Change Adaptation, Nepal, Bangladesh

The African continent is most vulnerable to climate change due to a multitude of environmental stressors and low adaptive capacity. Climate change stresses agriculture via rising temperatures and changing precipitation patterns, as well as increased soil vulnerability, climate variability, pests and crop disease, and increased atmospheric carbon dioxide. Affordable greenhouse solutions work on a small, sustainable scale to mitigate some of the effects of climate change and provide strategies for smallholder farmers to adapt to the changing environment. Greenhouses cannot reverse climate change, but they are well suited to increase the adaptive capacity of the agricultural sector in developing nations. This article examines affordable greenhouses and the role they play in mitigating the effects of climate change for small-scale farmers.

- by Lila Chung
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- Climate Change, Africa, Greenhouses, Smallholder Farmers

The Government of Nepal has identified opportunities in agricultural commercialization, responding to a growing internal demand and expansion of export markets to reduce the immense trade deficit. Several cash crops, including coffee and bananas, have been identified in the recently approved Agriculture Development Strategy. Both of these crops have encouraged smallholder farmers to convert their subsistence farming practices to more commercial cultivation. Identification of suitable agro-ecological zones and understanding climate-related issues are important for improved production and livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Here, the suitability of coffee and banana crops is analyzed for different agro-ecological zones represented by Global Environmental Stratification (GEnS). Future shifts in these suitability zones are also predicted. Plantation sites in Nepal were geo-referenced and used as input in species distribution modelling. The multi-model ensemble model suggests that climat...

- by X. Jianchu
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- Sociology, Geography, Environmental Science, Climate Change

Rainfall variability is a global phenomenon. Its impact on agricultural activities in the developing countries has been increasing. Higher temperature and decreasing precipitation depress crop yields. This is particularly true in low-income countries where adaptive capacities are perceived to be low. The vulnerability of poor countries could be due to weak institutional capacity, limited engagement in environmental and adaptation issues, and lack of validation of local knowledge. A better understanding of the local dimensions of vulnerability is therefore essential to develop appropriate adaptation measures that can mitigate these adverse consequences. The main aim of this study was to identify the determinants of smallholder farmers' choice of adaptation strategies and identify and analyse the adaptation strategies used by smallholder farmers in response to rainfall variability in Kirfi Local Government Area. Both primary and secondary data sources were used for this study. The results from the regression analysis showed that access to climate information, years of farming experience, respondents' perceptions on changing climate, level of education have significant and positive impact on rainfall variability adaptation strategies. The study was concluded with recommendation that policies aimed at promoting farm-level adaptation need to emphasize on the crucial role of providing information on better production techniques and enhancing farmers' awareness on rainfall variability to enable farmers adapt to impact of rainfall variability.

- by IRE Journals
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- Adaptation Strategies, Rainfall variability, Smallholder Farmers

Smallholder farmers within Sri Lanka’s dry zone region are considered to be increasingly vulnerable to the threat of climate change. Recognising this, growing resources are being channelled into climate change adaptation interventions with the aim of increasing the resilience of smallholder farmers. Predominately framed in technical terms, climate change adaptation in Sri Lanka pays little attention to the politics of adaptation and fails to move beyond identifying who is vulnerable, to asking why they are vulnerable in the first place. This thesis explores the politics of adaptation and vulnerability by addressing the following research questions: what are the main changes occurring within the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in the Anuradhapura District? What are the root causes of smallholder vulnerability in the Anuradhapura District? How does climate change adaptation structure opportunities and barriers for overcoming the marginalisation and vulnerabilities of smallholder farmers in the Anuradhapura District? In answering these questions, this thesis adopted a qualitative case study approach focusing on four villages in the Anuradhapura District. The study finds adaptation efforts in Sri Lanka largely fail to address the root causes of smallholder vulnerabilities and that the uneven outcomes of interventions risk further entrenching unequal power relations. This thesis contributes to the small, but growing body of literature that seeks to bring power and politics to the heart of adaptation research and practice. In addition, the research provides a more practical contribution by suggesting measures for democratising adaptation and socio-ecological futures in the Anuradhapura District. Finally, this thesis concludes that democratising socio-ecological futures can allow for the possibility of alternative and more equitable responses to climate change in Sri Lanka.

- by Harry Quealy
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- Political Ecology, Climate Change Adaptation, Politics, Sri Lanka

Expanding equitable access to product markets for millions of poor farmers is of critical importance to the development of sustainable rural livelihoods in developing countries. This paper addresses the question of how to improve strategies for improving their capacity to access dynamic markets on a large scale. Skill formation receives little attention in the current debate about how to overcome wealth-differentiated barriers to market entry in poor rural societies. Public investment in skill development for the rural poor fails to meet actual livelihood skill needs. By using a methodology to study farmer groups in three countries, this paper’s research identified an unmet, grassroots demand in farmer groups for combining five skill sets that in combination represent capacity for sustainable entrepreneurship. The combine skills are collective attributes formed and exercised by farmer groups that are successfully delivering benefits to their members. The paper concludes that what poor farmers want is the combination of these five capabilities and argues that a more comprehensive redefinition of skills and learning for the rural poor is needed that responds to this demand.

- by Gaye Burpee and +3
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- Capacity Building, Micro and Small Business Entrepreneurship, Smallholder Farmers, Farmer Groups
- by Oscar Ingasia
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- Communication, Development Studies, Agronomy, Climate Change

This study is undertaken to find out the factors influencing the effects of large-scale land acquisition on the livelihood of smallholder farmers in the Pru district. An important driver for large-scale land acquisition in Ghana, and the rest of Africa, is the growing global demand for biofuels and other plantations. Methodologically, mixed method approach was adopted by applying both quantitative and qualitative research designs. Quantitative data was obtained through a cross-sectional survey from smallholder farming households in the study communities of the Pru District with the help of a multi-stage sampling technique and cluster sampling technique. Qualitative data was obtained through Focus Group Discussions (FGD) from farmer-based associations in the Pru district. The Pru district in the Bono East region was purposively selected based on the reason that it is the most affected district with activities of land grabbing in Ghana. Based on the sample frame of 2,554 households in the communities, a sample size of 346 was used for the study out of which 332 were households and 14 were investors and traditional authorities. The study revealed that household heads' level of education, sex of household heads, household engagement in off-farm activities, total farm land owned by a household, size of land lost by households to large-scale land investors, households' participation in decision making, and training of households for other alternative jobs significantly influence large-scale land

The objective of the study was to identify the socio-economic and institutional factors which influence the level of awareness of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects and in so doing to highlight the policy implications for the stakeholders when designing clean development mechanism projects among smallholder farmers. Findings shows that 23% of the farmers were correctly aware of the project and the results of the ordered logit model indicate that age, gender, education level, group membership, existence of tree farming and contact with extension services was found to influence awareness level of smallholder forest Carbon projects. To assist the community to adapt to climate change and produce sufficiently on a sustainable basis and achieve the desired food security under climate change challenges, the study recommends policies to increase awareness of such agro-environmental initiatives and that of extension providers should distinguish their clientele anchored on vital demog...

- by John Mironga
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- Geography, Communication, Development Studies, Agronomy

The study dwelt on the potential of smallholder forests for the dual purpose of providing products for the farm household while contributing to climate change mitigation in Ghana using the Kranka, Baafi and Manso integrated mahogany forests of the Nkoranza South District as case study. It employed the use of both questionnaire sourced primary and literature review sourced secondary data. Both quantitative (use of tables and charts) and qualitative methods (use of SPSS-Statistical Package for Social Scientist and the Microsoft Excel computer application software) were used in the data analysis. The study established that smallholder farmers earn less than GH₵200 a year, perceive climate change as change in rainfall pattern and increase in temperature, and are willing to manage and retain their farms for climate change mitigation longer if enabled with carbon credits. It also established that access to initial capital is main factor that could influence planting of smallholder forests for climate change, and serving carbon credits to smallholders would influence the management of their forests. The study recommends the smallholders should be provided financial assistance to enable them increase the establishment of smallholder forests and carbon credits to enable them manage the forests. (GH₵1=US$0.52493 as at February, 2013).

- by Dennis Kyereh and +1
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- Climate Change Mitigation, Poverty Alleviation, Smallholder Farmers

The experiment for the on farm adaptive research was conducted during the kharif season 2012 at Mandla district of Madhya Pradesh, under the aegis of an International Project (EU) through Caritas India entitled, " Building Resilience to Climate Change through Strengthening Adaptive Small Scale Farming System in Rainfed Areas in Bangladesh, India and Nepal " (SAFBIN) program, to develop appropriate model of package of practices (POP) of rice. Results indicated that among the genotypes highest grain yield, net return and B:C ratio (9.76 t/ha, `102835/ha and 3.76, respectively) was recorded in the indigenous genotype Luchai. Among the methods of planting highest grain yield and net return (3.30 t/ha and`18450/ha, respectively) was recorded in the system of rice intensification (SRI). However, highest B:C ratio (1.62) was observed in the beushening puddle rice (BPR). With regard to the nutrient management highest grain yield, net return and B:C ratio (5.31t/ha, ` 41425/ ha and 2.13, respectively) was observed under lower dose of nitrogen in the treatment 50 kg N/ha through FYM + 3% matkakhaad.

- by Sunil Simon
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- Climate Change, Climate Change Adaptation, Food Security, Rainfed Agriculture
- by Mohamed Esham
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- Economics, Sri Lanka, Maize, Smallholder Farmers

- by Ernest Mbega
- •
- Research Methodology, Open Access, Educational Research, Tanzanian Studies

Agricultural sector is a mainstay of farmers’ livelihoods in Ethiopia. Maize is a largest crop being grown in Ethiopia; however, currently, yield gaps are the challenges faced by the producers. This study has an objective of identifying the determinants of maize production of smallholder farmers. Data were collected from 200 farmers living in the selected kebeles (communes) of Meta district in the East Hararge zone of Oromia region, Ethiopia. The collected data was analyzed using multiple linear regression model. The result showed that the production of maize was influenced by several factors. Non-farm activity had a positive impact on the production of maize. Thus, the farmers who had money from non-farm sources utilized these additional incomes as inputs to gain more maize production. The cultivated areas of land have a positive influence on the higher yields of maize. The maize crop production of smallholder farmers was negatively affected by Development Agent’s office. The study...

- by Desta Bati
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- Agronomy, Adoption, Agriculture, Livelihood Diversification
- by Mumuni Abu
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- Africa, Vulnerability, Multidisciplinary, Social vulnerability

The study focuses on the effects of large-scale land acquisition on the livelihood outcomes of smallholder farmers in the Pru district. This study therefore went beyond establishing the relationship between large-scale land investment and farmers' livelihood outcomes as a result of large-scale land investment activities. The study employed a mixed method approach as it used both qualitative and quantitative methods and further employed multi-stage and cluster sampling procedures to select the Pru district, the study communities and the respondents. The study administered 332 questionnaires, conducted 14 Focus Group Discussions (FGD). The Pearson correlation results showed that large-scale land acquisition has a significant effect on employment, food security, income levels and healthcare but not nutrition of the smallholder farming households in the Pru district of the Bono East region. The Pearson correlation coefficients of 0.129, 0.080 and 0.128 suggested the effects of large-scale land acquisition on employment, food security and healthcare. To restore farming households to normalcy, this study strongly recommends that Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) must formulate by-laws to ensure that large-scale land investors employ people from the host communities to participate in projects. As part of the recommendations, compensation package in the form of start-up capital sufficient to guarantee the livelihood of farming households should be given to households losing farm lands as a result of large-scale land acquisition.

- by Ronald O Mensah
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- Nutrition, Employment, Food Security, Income

Recent studies have addressed the social and environmental impacts of biofuel crops but seldom the question as to why rural producers engage in their production. It is particularly unclear how governments worldwide, especially in middle-income countries such as Brazil, Thailand, and Mexico, could enroll so many smallholders in biofuel cropping projects. Conventional views see yields and economic returns as main drivers for smallholder participation in biofuel production but ignore the role played by power and politics. This paper analyses the rapid biofuel expansions (oil palm, jatropha) in the southern Lacandon rainforest in Chiapas (Mexico) and their partial failure (jatropha) from a political ecology perspective. Our findings indicate that biofuel expansions in this region not only occurred for productive reasons, but also because biofuel programmes provided prospects for political gains through strengthened rural organisations. In contrast with emphasis on state coercion and local resistance—common in political ecology—the biofuel expansion relied, in this case, upon a 'politics of consent' in which both the state and rural organisations, albeit in a power-laden relationship, sought to achieve their own goals by supporting the planting of biofuel crops. These findings suggest the need to rethink how particular approaches within political ecology apply Gramsci's notions of power and hegemony and, more broadly, to consider the importance of politics in explaining why certain forms of agricultural production become dominant.

— The aim of this study was to map comprehensively as the basis for the implementation of technologies that met the needs of dairy farmers. Specifically, the objectives were: to analyze the marketing and institutional characteristics of dairy industryy in rural farmers. The target population is dairy farmers in Central Java, Yogyakarta and East Java Provinces. The numbers of samples were selected in nine dairy cooperatives, which were three cooperatives represented each province, three milk processing industries, and totally 270 farmers as respondents. Data were taken such as demographic characteristic of farmers, farmer groups, and marketing line of milk distribution from farmers to consumers. The results showed that the institutional environment of dairy industry and governance both from Cental Java, Yogyakarta and East Java need handlers more serious, it can be seen from the dependence of farmers on the institutions that exist including cooperatives and milk processing industries still high. From the aspect of livestock farming, cows in East Java showed better performance than the two other major regions, namely Central Java and Yogyakarta. Distribution and marketing of milk which is currently still depends on the institutional binding of cooperative, and dairy processing industry, and there has been no increase of participation in enhancing the value chain.

- by Agriculture Journal IJOEAR
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- Marketing, Environmental Science, Agriculture, Research

Farmer partieipation in decision making at various phases of project implementation contributes very.highly to project success. The Soil-Water Management Research Programme (SWMRP) has gained valuable experience in the involvement offarmer in all phases during the implementation of the programme.. The programme used the following instruments to ensure farmer participation: • Socio-economic ~urvey~ ~ including Participatory and Rapid Rural Appraisals. • Farmer participation in onjarm experimentation. • Participatory technology evaluation through workshops and seminars aimed at monitoring project ppformanqe and getting feedback from stakeholders. The process of farmer participation evolved over the duration of the project.·l!essons learnt at the begin.ning were incorporated in the research process over time. Initially, the planning of the ex-' periments did not fully allow jor farmer participation. This shortcoming was lat'er rectified, and more farmer participation was allo...

- by G. Kajiru
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- Adoption, Participation, Rainwater Harvesting, Key words

Diverse and quality diets are crucial to sustainable growth and development of under-five children, especially those of rural farming households. This study investigated the dietary diversity, environment and health-related factors of young children. The study employed the use of crosssectional survey data from 140 under-five children of cassava farming households in Ogun and Oyo states, SouthWest Nigeria. The study estimated factors influencing dietary diversity of underfive children and assessed children dietary diversity, and the availability of some environment and health-related factors of the farming households. The findings indicated that 98.7% and 97.5% of children consumed grains, with roots and tubers while 36.7% and 36.3% consumed legumes in Ogun and Oyo states respectively. The results also found that 48.6% of children sampled met the minimum cutoff point of 4 food groups with dietary diversity mean score of 3.28. The logit regression analysis indicated that child's age, mothers' age, distance to farm and food expenditure were among the significant determinants of children dietary diversity. Therefore, this study seeks the collaborative efforts of stakeholders in providing nutrition-sensitive intervention programs for household members especially mothers and young children in order to promote consumption of diversified diets and enhance healthy living of rural farming households.

This paper considers the economic behaviour of smallholder farmers in eastern Ethiopia and its effects on their poverty status, looking specifically at how farmers deal with production risk and various time horizons. Earlier studies in rural Africa suggested that these are interlinked but that remains analytically dissatisfactory. Through experiments, we seek to disentangle risk preferences and time horizons in their impact on poverty. We find that the studied farmers are highly risk-averse and time impatient; few farmers make longer-term investments. This appears to be covariant with wealth and household indicators: poorer, less educated farmers with smaller landholdings make less risky investments, thus yielding smaller returns, which shorten their time horizons. This finding is relevant for rural development policies, in particular suggesting how untying the Gordian knot of risk and time that spawns rural poverty depends on the simultaneous operation of market and state forces.

- by Joost Beuving
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- Rural Poverty, Ethiopia, Experimental Methods, Time preferences
- by Christopher Mahonge
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- Agronomy, Adoption, Agriculture, Integrated Pest Management