Incrementalism Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

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- Political Science, Politics, Incrementalism
- by Cassim Shepard
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- Urbanism, Documentary Film, Incrementalism

This paper examines the notion that ‘All models of the policy process necessarily misrepresent complex realities’, seeking to establish where the value of models lies if this is true. Parsons (1996, p.58) describes a model as creating order out of that which does not in itself have an objective order. I distinguish between two models of the decision-making process to illuminate where value lies: the ‘Stages’ model and the ‘Incremental’ branch model. I argue firstly that stages offer order and make sense of complexity through a linear approach to policymaking, but that conversely, the real world is not a blank slate ordered in neat stages, hence it misrepresents reality, as policy stages are inseparable. Secondly, I outline how Stages infer logic through division of labour and use of a feedback loop but that alternatively, Stages can be irrational in that dividing stages gives a false picture of the process, which is descriptive but not explicative. Thirdly, I assess the value of Incrementalism’s ‘Muddling Through’ approach to address gaps left by the Stages model, explaining how it allows for small policy changes and makes policy options manageable. Thereafter, I present Lindblom’s rejection of rationality in favour of negotiation, before acknowledging that his emphasis on consensus neglects innovation. I conclude that comparing these models reveals that each is more suitable to specific realities, henceforth different realities warrant different models. This is summarised by John’s notion that ‘it is not necessarily the case that models misrepresent reality, but there is a seemingly impossible list of requirements that successful models must have’ (2003, p.482). Models are flawed in respect of any reality – but they are essential to comprehending the policymaking process.

- by Katrina Lavender
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- Policy modeling, Policy Process, Policy Making Processes, Policy Modelling

From the time of Tanzimat to the present day, education policies have always been a priority area of intervention for political and administrative elites in Turkey. During the last two centuries, education policy is considered as a very important means and lever for the survival of the State, the unity of the nation and modernization and as well as for the creation and preservation of the Nation state. In this work, the evolution of education policy as well as the various approaches developed, the institutional and legislative regulations were studied by conceiving the period cited above in a logic of continuity between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic. In this perspective, the work mainly questions the question of change in the context of public policy analysis. The debates and attempts at reform initiated in the 19th century in the field of education reached a decisive turning point with the creation of the Republic. Tevhid-i Tedrisat presents itself as a radical measure undertaken by the founders of the Republic. Furthermore, during the following decades, for society and also for political leaders, the need for reform and improvement in the field of education has constantly been an important subject on the political agenda. However, the question of "reform" could only be conceived in its secondary dimensions. In this sense, education is considered rather as a guarantor of the principle of secularism and as an ideological apparatus of the state without being able to conceive substantial and first-rate reforms. This work therefore questions the problem of change in education policy in Turkey. In this perspective, he seeks to demonstrate and explain the nature and the reasons for an incremental and limited process of change.

- by Nurettin Çiçekçi
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- Education, Political Science, Education in Turkey, Incrementalism

Lindblom, who became 100 years old this year, summarized his views in a book, explicitly called “The Policy-Making Process,” with a first edition in 1968, a second one in 1980, and a coauthored (with Edward Woodhouse) last edition in 1993. Since Lindblom and Woodhouse have done later generations of policy scholars the favor of referring to Lindblom’s previous works as insertions and footnotes to this text, we are in a position to
judge how Lindblom himself saw his contribution to theories of the entire policymakingprocess. It is therefore only appropriate to start, in Section Two, with a summary and some clarifying comments on this book. Section Three starts with Linblom’s curious silence on epistemology and methodology. Section Four deals with how incrementalism relates to present views on long-term policy dynamics.
Section Five looks at incrementalism as method of strategic analysis, and how since the 1990s a suite of “neo-incrementalist” theories and approaches has developed.
The final section offers a critical but appreciative assessment of Lindblom’s work for future challenges by returning to his major thesis that there are predictable
limits to responsible policy change in democratic regimes.

- by Rob Hoppe
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- Policy Design, Public Policy and Administration, Incrementalism, Public Policy

Systems, demography and life in Indian cities is facing complex transformation. Rapid urbanization has put forth the demand for a new thinking process of planned development. In recent past, small scale attempts to improve urban areas, referred a stactical urbanism, have inspired planners around the world to consider low-cost, experimental and incremental projects as a means to sustainable urban development. The momentum of tactical urbanism has been in creasing; however, the role of planners and the importance of such experiments in professional planning exercises, especially in India, remain undefined. The research investigates how tactical projects allow citizens to participate in urban change, and give planners a chance to develop inclusive, acceptable and sustainable planning policies over a period of time. Drawing satisfactory evidence on tactical approach to urban planning, findings of the research suggest that if our cities require big plans and policies, they also require small tactics, and the momentum of huge visionary policies can also be collectively attained by smaller tactical projects and schemes.

This chapter juxtaposes the transition management approach with the rationalities and instruments of urban planning. Considering the historic evolution and current characteristics of mainstream urban planning in theory and practice, it identifies key challenges and opportunities for engaging with transition management. The discussion underlines the strengths and weaknesses of both approaches, but also their incompatibility. This implies to conceive of a dialectic relation between urban planning and transition management: Deliberately striving for coordinated independence, creating synergies and mutually compensating for critical deficits in order to effectively perform urban sustainability transformations.

- by Rene Kemp
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- Human Geography, Sustainable Development, Portfolio Management, Waste Management
- by James Giacomoni
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- Public Budgeting, Incrementalism

Lindblom's 1959 article on incrementalism is one of the most cited works in social science.11A citation search was conducted on Lindblom's 1959 and (follow-up) 1979 articles, yielding 1112 citations. This article examines and probes five of the theory's basic, underlying assumptions in light of current empirical and theoretical approaches. The five assumptions are: (1) the limited nature of rationality and

- by Leslie Pal
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- Sociology, Globalization, Decision Making, Political Science

India as a country is seeing rapid growth in the urban sector, with a growing number of housing projects. In spite of the sudden spurge, the satisfactory levels of housing for the citizens of this country are not met. Incremental housing, an approach where a home is not viewed as a finished product, but rather as a process in which inhabitants can participate in constructing their own home based on their wants and financial constraints is an unexplored concept in the country. India's Housing Policy has yet to include Incrementality as a concept. The paper aims to highlight the problems faced during the implementation of Incremental housing in India, using case studies of existing projects in India. Further the paper covers and studies prominent Incremental housing examples all over the world to further draw conclusions by coming up with different approaches that can be adopted for Incremental housing to be implemented in India.

- by Terkel Christiansen
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- Economics, Health Economics, Health Care, Financial management

The dominant approach to counter-piracy strategy off Somalia is astonishingly narrow minded. Deterrence, surveillance and military operations do not provide a sustainable or efficient solution. Better strategic alternatives must drawing on the lessons of 21st century peace operations. This perspective leads to an understanding of counter-piracy as a problem of peacebuilding. This allows restructuring and re-framing the problem to permit a much wider repertoire of policy solutions than currently conceived. This repertoire may include development and security assistance programmes as well as state-building programmes. The approach also permits integration of lessons learned in the frame of international peacebuilding operations, including avoiding technocratic solutions, focusing on power constellations, integrating local knowledge and incrementalism. If the international community takes piracy seriously and tries to respond to its complexity, it is well advised to adopt a policy in which such alternatives are considered.

- by Christian Bueger and +1
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- International Relations, International Law, International Security, Naval Warfare
- by Deborah Edwards
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- Management, Marketing, Services, Tourism

The links between public policy and classical models may at first sight appear not to have a social and a political significance to public policy making and far from central to government concerns. In a justly argument, the paper takes an eclectic position and try to discuss the parallels that have to be recognized more fully as cornerstones for practical public policy making, citing the relevancy of the rational and incremental models to explain social and political phenomenon in the event of public policy making and implementation.

- by Catherine Mwine
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- Rational Choice, Uganda, Bounded Rationality, Incrementalism

The Danish health care system has undergone gradual changes, but not radical reforms, from 1970 until 2004. Theoretically, the development can be viewed from the perspective of fiscal federalism, decentralization, and incentives embodied... more

- by Terkel Christiansen
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- Economics, Health Economics, Health Care, Financial management

There is wide agreement that prioritising on-road public transport services is beneficial, but considerable uncertainty about how best to implement priority measures in practice. As yet it is unclear why some transit priority schemes receive political, institutional and public support while others are blocked, cancelled or compromised, often for non-technical reasons.
This paper explores how public policy analysis concepts can be adapted to describe and
potentially improve transit priority implementation. Previous evaluation approaches have focused on the traffic, mobility and economic impacts of transit priority measures. What has been missing is a consideration of how politics, institutional arrangements and other non-rational factors influence priority implementation.
This paper describes the major forms of policy analysis (rationalism, institutionalism, incrementalism, political approaches and the ‘garbage can’ model) and uses each to develop new conceptual models of priority implementation.
Institutional and top-down models emphasise the government’s control over the road and transit system. They suggest that better policies and centralisation of decision-making might improve priority implementation. In contrast, bottom-up implementation theories and what is termed the ‘garbage can’ model emphasise the influence of street-level actors and project team members. These suggest that understanding the drivers of individuals’ opinions, strategies and decision-making is necessary to improve implementation and outcomes.
Incrementalism based models, on the other hand, suggest using a series of small changes to gradually increase the level of transit priority over time instead of a large, and potentially controversial, single step.
This paper provides an initial move beyond the prevailing ‘techno-rationalist’ approaches to transit priority implementation. It concludes with a description of opportunities for future research to test these new models and to explore the political, institutional and other factors influencing transit priority implementation.

- by James Reynolds
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- Public Transport, Rationalism, Public Policy Analysis, Institutionalism

This paper tries to rethink Chinese civil society out of the confrontational state-society relations or the citizen-autonomous versus state-corporatist frameworks that have been dominated the study of civil society. While there are various definitions of civil society, this paper analyzes civil society as public sphere. Through a case study of the (in)famous flame war between Fang Zhouzi and Han Han on China’s Internet, this paper looks at a triple interactions between the state, the society, and the market on the Internet in China. It also strives to answer why the liberating Internet has led to an uncivil society rather than a civil one. By reviewing a series of the party-state’s policy initiatives to regulate the Internet, accompanied by the commercialization of societal life, this paper attributes the incivility and the lack of consensus among the public to the tightening control and coercive state power especially since President Xi Jinxing took place, if not the earlier 18th National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party.

- by Lotus Ruan
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- Intellectual History, Uncivil Society (Political Science), Civil Society, Ethos

En este trabajo analizamos la evolución del gasto público argentino en los últimos treinta y cinco años con el objetivo de determinar la capacidad de los gobiernos para reacomodar la asignación de recursos entre las distintas finalidades estatales. En primer lugar, desarrollamos el planteo del problema, haciendo una muy breve reseña de los ciclos históricos de gobernanza, con especial referencia al lugar que se le asignó al Estado en la etapa del ajuste estructural (1980-2001) y del llamado "populismo de izquierda" (2002/2015). En segundo lugar, nos adentramos en el análisis de la evolución de las cuatro finalidades en que se clasifica el gasto: social, económico, funcionamiento del Estado y deuda. Concretamente, en la etapa del ajuste estructural nos detenemos a analizar el proceso de reemplazo del gasto en servicios económicos por gasto social y en la etapa populista la reconstrucción de la estructura de intervención estatal en la economía. Para el desarrollo del trabajo tomamos como variable independiente los objetivos de gobierno en cada periodo, mientras que las efectivas variaciones en el gasto por finalidad constituyen la variable dependiente. Referimos a un diseño cuasi experimental, en el sentido de que no podemos colegir si los resultados alcanzados tienen que ver con otras variables intervinientes-como, por ejemplo, el contexto nacional o

- by horacio Cao
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- Argentina, Neoliberalism, Peronism, Public expenditure

People differ in their implicit theories about the malleability of characteristics such as intelligence and personality. These relatively chronic theories can be experimentally altered, and can be affected by parent or teacher feedback. Little is known about whether people might selectively shift their implicit beliefs in response to salient situational goals. We predicted that, when motivated to reach a desired conclusion, people might subtly shift their implicit theories of change and stability to garner supporting evidence for their desired position. Any motivated context in which a particular lay theory would help people to reach a preferred directional conclusion could elicit shifts in theory endorsement. We examine a variety of motivated situational contexts across 7 studies, finding that people's theories of change shifted in line with goals to protect self and liked others and to cast aspersions on disliked others. Studies 1-3 demonstrate how people regulate their implicit theories to manage self-view by more strongly endorsing an incremental theory after threatening performance feedback or memories of failure. Studies 4-6 revealed that people regulate the implicit theories they hold about favored and reviled political candidates , endorsing an incremental theory to forgive preferred candidates for past gaffes but leaning toward an entity theory to ensure past failings "stick" to opponents. Finally, in Study 7, people who were most threatened by a previously convicted child sex offender (i.e., parents reading about the offender moving to their neighborhood) gravitated most to the entity view that others do not change. Although chronic implicit theories are undoubtedly meaningful, this research reveals a previously unexplored source of fluidity by highlighting the active role people play in managing their implicit theories in response to goals.

- by Cindy Ward
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- Incrementalism, Lay Theories, Implicit theories, Implicit Theories of Self-Control

A piece dealing with Lindblom's volte-face, my diploma thesis reworked into an article (in Croatian).

- by Krešimir Petković
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- Political Economy, Incrementalism, Charles Lindblom, Public Policy

Fundamental rights standards in Europe diverge as a result of differences in legal traditions , constitutional values and historical developments. The European Court of Human Rights therefore faces the challenge of having to balance the need for uniform and effective rights protection with respect for diversity. It is often thought that the famous margin of appreciation doctrine is the Court's main tool in finding this balance. This article shows, however, that the Court's application of the doctrine has made it into a rather empty rhetorical device. This appears to be different for the Court's use of incrementalism, which increasingly appears to have replaced the margin of appreciation doctrine as an instrument to reconcile European protection of fundamental rights and national diversity. The article concludes by showing how the Court could further benefit from this strategy of incrementalism, while still maintaining a role for the margin of appreciation doctrine. K E Y W OR D S : fundamental human rights, margin of appreciation doctrine, incremen-talism, European Convention of Human Rights, European Court of Human Rights

Cet article analyse la place de la planification métropolitaine prétendument stratégique et collaborative du Grand Montréal au sein des dispositifs d’organisation de l’action collective territoriale. Il montre qu’elle a pris une tournure davantage discursive et procédurale que stratégique ou collaborative. Son saut d’échelle l’a fait passer d’un registre d’expertise technique à une optique d’incrémentalisme interactif axé sur les autorités locales et la société civile. Ce glissement en a fait un instrument de gouvernance voué à la création d’un sentiment d’appartenance, de scènes de collaboration et d’occasions de légitimation réciproque des autorités publiques et de la société civile. Plutôt qu’un retour en force du plan, cet article illustre son instrumentalisation à des fins politiques. | This article analyses the role of the supposedly strategic and collaborative metropolitan planning of Greater Montreal in the organization of territorial collective action devices. It shows that it took a discursive and procedural turn, rather than a strategic or collaborative one. Its scalar leap has transformed it from a perspective of technical expertise to an approach of interactive incrementalism based on local authorities and the civil society. This shift has made it an instrument of governance dedicated to creating a sense of belonging, scenes of collaboration and opportunities for the reciprocal legitimization of public authorities and civil society. Rather than a resurgence of the plan, this article illustrates its exploitation for political purposes.

- by Olivier Roy-Baillargeon
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- Strategic Planning, Montréal, Collaborative Planning, Incrementalism

How smart grids are understood and defined will influence the kinds of smart grids users will encounter in the future and their potential impacts. Practitioners and policymakers largely perceive smart grids as technological interventions. However, a number of social, financial and governmental interventions can also make grids smart, i.e., more efficient, more responsive, more inclusive and more robust. Drawing on qualitative research done using elite interviews, site visits and document analysis of eight micro-grids in India, this paper provides concrete examples of what could be understood as social, financial and governmental smartness, and in doing so, broadens the knowledge on smart grids beyond the technical understanding. This paper argues that social, financial and governmental interventions are central to 'smartness', and that multifaceted and relational sociotechnical approaches will build cheaper, just, more democratic and sustainable smart grids. The paper observes that smart grids are not conceived as smart grids but rather develop incrementally. An incremental approach, rather than pushing a premeditated set of ideas and technologies, reduces adoption of non-contextual interventions as well as unnecessary investments in new technologies. The paper recommends that policymakers and practitioners should understand and develop smart grids as sociotechnical and incremental grids.

- by Ankit Kumar
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- Sociotechnical Systems, Smart Grid, Socio-cultural, India

The contribution of PREVI to architecture culture remains, in great part, in
the expression that housing are not merely objects, but also the materialization of social processes that develop incrementally. The incorporation of time management in the design process, going beyond the time frame of the construction of housing itself, comes in diverging modalities: in a physical dimension, it happens by designing construction systems that could evolve over time along with family’s growth; in a social dimension, it relates to the qualification of a typology after a definition of family’s archetype, and its needs expanded and changed. In what follows I will look at several design-related strategies to understand the negotiations between objects and processes in this twofold approach to time management. This way be “incremental” design approaches that have dealt with time following two ruling principles that I call of “mutual help” and of “open supports.” Below, I develop examples and basic configurations of these archetypes, relating this way PREVI to its roots and stems. I believe that this characterization is useful to analyze and assess several projects undertaken in the quest to provide shelter for the masses and urban spaces that function for the poor, and it also helps us to identify other strategies dealing with similar problems involving the growth of housing.

- by Jude Hays
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- Collective Behavior, Decision Making, Applied Economics, Learning

La contribución de PREVI a la cultura de la arquitectura se mantiene, en gran parte, en la expresión de que la vivienda no son meramente objetos, sino también la materialización de procesos sociales que se desarrollan incrementalmente. La incorporación de la gestión del tiempo en el proceso de diseño, yendo más allá del marco temporal de la construcción de la vivienda, se presenta en modalidades divergentes: en una dimensión física, ocurre diseñando sistemas de construcción que podrían evolucionar con el tiempo junto con el crecimiento de la familia; en una dimensión social, se relaciona con la calificación de una tipología después de una definición del arquetipo de la familia, y sus necesidades expandidas y cambiadas. En lo que sigue, examinaré varias estrategias relacionadas con el diseño para comprender las negociaciones entre objetos y procesos en este doble enfoque de la administración del tiempo. De esta forma enfoques de diseño "incrementales" que han tratado el tiempo siguiendo dos principios gobernantes que llamo "ayuda mutua" y de "apoyos abiertos". A continuación, desarrollo ejemplos y configuraciones básicas de estos arquetipos, relacionando de esta manera PREVI con su raíces y tallos. Creo que esta caracterización es útil para analizar y evaluar varios proyectos emprendidos en la búsqueda de dar cobijo a las masas y espacios urbanos que funcionan para los pobres, y también nos ayuda a identificar otras estrategias que abordan problemas similares que involucran el crecimiento de la vivienda.

- by Alejandro de Castro Mazarro
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- Incrementalism

This article aims at discussing AGILE values and principles in the context of public policy making. In particular, an effort is put in answering a question on the possibility of including the AGILE values and principles to the conduct of policy making. Known from IT industry, AGILE methodologies have been lately drawing growing attention of public policy makers in the world. This approach seems to have a big advantage over hitherto known modes of public operation, as it allows for a quicker adaptation of policies to changes of the environment. At the same time however, it seems to pose much bigger challenges on policy making bodies, as it in real time requires a strong capacity for regulating diversity throughout the policy making processes.

- by Krzysztof Kasianiuk
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- Governance, Agile Methodologies, Scrum and Agile, Incrementalism
- by megan richardson
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- Privacy, Confidence, Right, Method

En este artículo se analizan los programas Presupuestarios de 43 Ramos del Presupuesto de Egresos de la Federación (PEF) en México en el periodo 2010-2015. El propósito es conocer más sobre la política pública por ramo en nuestro país vía... more

- by Gabriela Tapia Téllez and +1
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- Evaluation, Mexico, México, Evaluación

The dominant approach to counter-piracy strategy off Somalia is astonishingly narrow-minded. Deterrence, surveillance and military operations do not provide sustainable or efficient solutions; better strategic alternatives must draw on the lessons of 21st-century peace operations. This perspective leads to an understanding of counterpiracy as a problem of peacebuilding. This allows restructuring and reframing of the problem to permit a much wider repertoire of policy solutions than is currently conceived. This repertoire may include development and security assistance programmes as well as state-building programmes. The approach also permits integration of lessons learned in the frame of international peacebuilding operations, including avoiding technocratic solutions, focusing on power constellations, integrating local knowledge and incrementalism. If the international community wishes to take piracy seriously and respond to its complexities, it would be well advised to adopt a pol...

- by Sascha Werthes
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- International Relations, International Law, International Security, Naval Warfare

RESUMO: A alocação dos recursos públicos é sempre uma decisão importante. Não só por apontar a origem de receitas que são escassas, mas também por sinalizar os problemas que se pretende enfrentar. Em boa medida, esse processo reflete as escolhas, em termos de políticas públicas, que são feitas em nome de uma determinada sociedade, retratando sua capacidade de entender e superar os desafios que se apresentam no trajeto de seu desenvolvimento coletivo. Facilmente constatável, a bibliografia que trata do assunto é vigorosa e impressiona por seu volume. Contudo, as abordagens usuais da análise orçamentária focalizam o Estado como um ente meramente residual, auxiliar do mercado, ou simplesmente um reflexo da dinâmica de forças sociais mais profundas. Por conseguinte, acaba-se ofuscando as implicações que as decisões orçamentárias têm sobre a governança democrática. Em face disso, ainda que de forma exploratória e incompleta, o presente texto traz à tona um conjunto de enfoques que destaca, além de aspectos fiscais e econômicos, também as dimensões organizacionais e políticas imbricadas no processo de alocação dos recursos públicos. Com o auxílio de duas lentes conceituais alternativas (ator estritamente racional e comportamento organizacional), examinam-se as opções epistemológicas e metodológicas dos aportes teóricos da economia do bem-estar, da rational choice, do incrementalismo, dos multiple streams, das coalizões de defesa e do equilíbrio pontuado. O texto evidencia que divergências na assunção de premissas em cada enfoque provocam distintas interpretações e conclusões sobre o fenômeno estudado, especialmente em relação à quantidade, ao papel das preferências, à capacidade cognitiva e à lógica de processamento subjacente à decisão dos atores envolvidos na orçamentação. Ao procurar reconhecer caminhos de pesquisa mais proveitosos à compreensão do processo de alocação dos recursos públicos, bem como instigar a reflexão sobre mecanismos de governança orçamentária, observa-se que os enfoques dos multiple streams, das coalizões de defesa e do equilíbrio pontuado apresentam maior potencial explicativo em comparação aos demais, na medida em que admitem (mais realisticamente) a limitação cognitiva dos agentes (indivíduos e organizações), a complexidade e a ambigüidade dos contextos e as múltiplas dimensões que caracterizam as decisões de políticas públicas.

- by Paulo Calmon
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- Economia Política, Incrementalism, Economia do setor público, Tomada De Decisão
- by Derk Loorbach
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- Human Geography, Sustainable Development, Portfolio Management, Waste Management

A prevailing comment responsible for the failure of many ERC AdG (Advanced) applications (though also found in Starting and Consolidator grants) pertains to the ‘incremental nature’ of the proposed research. Why is that? How can one successfully design a project which reflects the naturally occurring progress forward which builds on past achievements, current knowledge, expertise, and preliminary results, while at the same time conforming to the ‘non-incremental’ ERC unofficial requirement?

Elsewhere* we proposed a systemic methodological support for information systems development. One of our conclusions was about the importance of paralleling analysis and synthesis, and its internal detailed steps, which are usually... more

Human population increases alongside climatic changes has spurred interest in technologies exploiting unconventional water resources. However, analysis of the risks entailed by these technologies has lagged behind research on their scientific and technical facets. This paper considers one unconventional resource: the waters resulting from oil and gas extraction processes-"produced waters." This paper novelly redeploys the Intelligent Trial and Error perspective on technological risk as an anticipatory framework, examining the question "How amenable is the sociotechnical landscape of produced waters to learning of, averting, and responding to negative unintended consequences?" Controversy over recycling oil and gas wastewater for irrigation in Kern County, CA is analyzed as emblematic of the cultural, technical, and political barriers to responsible produced water innovation more broadly. This article shows how Intelligent Trial and Error can enhance the Responsible Research and Innovation framework with regard to addressing the material and political obstacles to more ethical R&D.

- by Taylor Dotson
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- Climate Change, Political Science, Waste recycling, Risk Management
- by Larry Dwyer
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- Management, Marketing, Services, Tourism

... States. c Mona School of Business, The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica. Received ... 2005]). However, information use is not always desirable, or even useful, from a company's point of view (Vyas and Souchon, 2003).... more

- by Minna Rollins and +1
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- Business, Knowledge Management, Qualitative Research, Multidisciplinary