CO 2 Emission Research Papers (original) (raw)

We measured nitrous oxide (N 2 O), dinitrogen (N 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) fluxes in horizontal and vertical flow constructed wetlands (CW) and in a riparian alder stand in southern Estonia using the closed chamber... more

We measured nitrous oxide (N 2 O), dinitrogen (N 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) fluxes in horizontal and vertical flow constructed wetlands (CW) and in a riparian alder stand in southern Estonia using the closed chamber method in the period from October 2001 to November 2003. The replicates' average values of N 2 O, N 2 , CH 4 and CO 2 fluxes from the riparian gray alder stand varied from −0.4 to 58 g N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 , 0.02-17.4 mg N 2 -N m −2 h −1 , 0.1-265 g CH 4 -C m −2 h −1 and 55-61 mg CO 2 -C m −2 h −1 , respectively. In horizontal subsurface flow (HSSF) beds of CWs, the average N 2 emission varied from 0.17 to 130 and from 0.33 to 119 mg N 2 -N m −2 h −1 in the vertical subsurface flow (VSSF) beds. The average N 2 O-N emission from the microsites above the inflow pipes of the HSSF CWs was 6.4-31 g N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 , whereas the outflow microsites emitted 2.4-8 g N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 . In VSSF beds, the same value was 35.6-44.7 g N 2 O-N m −2 h −1 . The average CH 4 emission from the inflow and outflow microsites in the HSSF CWs differed significantly, ranging from 640 to 9715 and from 30 to 770 g CH 4 -C m −2 h −1 , respectively. The average CO 2 emission was somewhat higher in VSSF beds (140-291 mg CO 2 -C m −2 h −1 ) and at the inflow microsites of HSSF beds (61-140 mg CO 2 -C m −2 h −1 ). The global warming potential (GWP) from N 2 O and CH 4 was comparatively high in both types of CWs (4.8 ± 9.8 and 6.8 ± 16.2 t CO 2 eq ha −1 a −1 in the HSSF CW 6.5 ± 13.0 and 5.3 ± 24.7 t CO 2 eq ha −1 a −1 in the hybrid CW, respectively). The GWP of the riparian alder forest from both N 2 O and CH 4 was relatively low (0.4 ± 1.0 and 0.1 ± 0.30 t CO 2 eq ha −1 a −1 , respectively), whereas the CO 2 -C flux was remarkable (3.5 ± 3.7 t ha −1 a −1 ). The global influence of CWs is not significant. Even if all global domestic wastewater were treated by wetlands, their share of the trace gas emission budget would be less than 1%.

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to present research which analysed energy consumption in the Melbourne central business district (CBD) office stock and examined all buildings to identify CO 2 emissions in 2005. The rationale was... more

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to present research which analysed energy consumption in the Melbourne central business district (CBD) office stock and examined all buildings to identify CO 2 emissions in 2005. The rationale was that, by profiling a large group of buildings, it would be possible to identify characteristics of the stock. For example, do older buildings typically emit more CO 2 per square metre than newer buildings?

Forested tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia store at least 42 000 Million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Human activity and climate change threatens the stability of this large pool, which has been decreasing rapidly over the last... more

Forested tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia store at least 42 000 Million metric tonnes (Mt) of soil carbon. Human activity and climate change threatens the stability of this large pool, which has been decreasing rapidly over the last few decades owing to deforestation, drainage and fire. In this paper we estimate the carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions resulting from drainage of lowland tropical peatland for agricultural and forestry development which dominates the perturbation of the carbon balance in the region. Present and future emissions from drained peatlands are quantified using data on peatland extent and peat thickness, present and projected land use, water management practices and decomposition rates. Of the 27.1 Million hectares (Mha) of peatland in Southeast Asia, 12.9 Mha had been deforested and mostly drained by 2006. This latter area is increasing rapidly because of increasing land development pressures. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emission caused by decomposition of drained peatlands was between 355 Mt y −1 and 855 Mt y −1 in 2006 of which 82% came from Indonesia, largely Sumatra and Kalimantan. At a global scale, CO 2 emission from peatland drainage in Southeast Asia is contributing the equivalent of 1.3% to 3.1% of current global CO 2 emissions from the combustion of fossil fuel. If current peatland development and management practices continue, these emissions are predicted to continue for decades. This warrants inclusion of Correspondence to: A. Hooijer (aljosja.hooijer@deltares.nl) tropical peatland CO 2 emissions in global greenhouse gas emission calculations and climate mitigation policies. Uncertainties in emission calculations are discussed and research needs for improved estimates are identified.

Everyday traffic accounts for a significant share of overall greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). While several solutions have been proposed for decreasing the emissions, a new kind of land use planning is... more

Everyday traffic accounts for a significant share of overall greenhouse gas emissions, in particular carbon dioxide (CO 2 ). While several solutions have been proposed for decreasing the emissions, a new kind of land use planning is required in order to achieve long-term effects. This study focuses on the effect of large retail store locations in the urban structure on overall CO 2 emissions, by using the Oulu region, Finland, as a case study. The aim was to utilize GIS tools to assess store locations in terms of CO 2 emissions from private cars used for consumer traffic. In this case, not only are the locations of the existing and planned retail units investigated with respect to population distribution and car ownership, but the analysis is also carried out by regarding any location within the study area as a hypothetical site for a large retail unit. According to the applied method, CO 2 values are lowest near the centre of the studied region, the region with the highest population density, although the city centre itself did not turn out to be the most optimal location for a retail store in terms of CO 2 emissions. Nevertheless, by generally reducing trip length, a compact urban structure is an important way of achieving long-term cuts in CO 2 emissions.

Using fossil fuels is likely to remain the dominant means of producing electricity in 2030 and even 2050, partly because power stations have long lives. There are two main ways of reducing CO 2 emissions from fossil-fuelled power plants.... more

Using fossil fuels is likely to remain the dominant means of producing electricity in 2030 and even 2050, partly because power stations have long lives. There are two main ways of reducing CO 2 emissions from fossil-fuelled power plants. These are carbon capture and storage (CCS), which can produce near-zero CO 2 emissions, and increases in plant efficiency, which can give rise to significant reductions in CO 2 emissions and to reduced costs. If a typical UK coal-fired plant was replaced by today's best available technology, it would lead to reductions of around 25% in emissions of CO 2 per MW h of electricity produced. Future technologies are targeting even larger reductions in emissions, as well as providing a route, with CCS, to zero emissions. These two routes are linked and they are both essential activities on the pathway to zero emissions. This paper focuses on the second route and also covers an additional third route for reducing emissions, the use of biomass. It discusses the current status of the science and technologies for fossil-fuelled power generation and outlines likely future technologies, development targets and timescales. This is followed by a description of the scientific and technological developments that are needed to meet these challenges. Once built, a power plant can last for over 40 years, so the ability to upgrade and retrofit a plant during its lifetime is important.

The vision of the Gulf Coast Carbon Center is to seek to impact global levels of GHG in the atmosphere by doing science and engineering studies that will support reduction of CO2 emissions and enable the development of an economically... more

The vision of the Gulf Coast Carbon Center is to seek to impact global levels of GHG in the atmosphere by doing science and engineering studies that will support reduction of CO2 emissions and enable the development of an economically viable, multifaceted, CO2 sequestration industry in the Gulf Coast. This industrial-academic consortium is investigating issues related to assessing the pathways that would make capture and pipeline transportation economically feasible and environmentally effective within a specific regional context. Key issues considered are capture in the context of the current market, pipeline infrastructure, the role of enhanced oil recovery, and permanence in a basin with many wells. .

The storage of large volumes of industrial CO 2 emissions in deep geological formations is one of the most promising climate mitigation options. The long-term retention time and environmental safety of the CO 2 storage are defined by the... more

The storage of large volumes of industrial CO 2 emissions in deep geological formations is one of the most promising climate mitigation options. The long-term retention time and environmental safety of the CO 2 storage are defined by the interaction of the injected CO 2 with the reservoir fluids and rocks. Finding a storage solution that is long lasting, thermodynamically stable and environmentally benign would be ideal. Storage of CO 2 as solid magnesium or calcium carbonates in basaltic rocks may provide such a long-term and thermodynamically stable solution. Basaltic rocks, which primarily consist of magnesium and calcium silicate minerals, provide alkaline earth metals necessary to form solid carbonates. In nature, the carbonization of basaltic rocks occurs in several well-documented settings, such as in the deep ocean crust, through hydrothermal alteration and through surface weathering. The goal of the CarbFix pilot project is to optimize industrial methods for permanent storage of CO 2 in basaltic rocks. The objective is to study the in-situ mineralization of CO 2 and its long term fate. The project involves the capture and separation of flue gases at the Hellisheidi Geothermal Power Plant, the transportation and injection of the CO 2 gas fully dissolved in water at elevated pressures at a depth between 400 and 800 m, as well as the monitoring and verification of the storage. A comprehensive reservoir characterization study is on-going prior to the CO 2 injection, including soil CO 2 flux measurements, geophysical survey and tracer injection tests. Results from the tracer tests show significant tracer dispersion within the target formation, suggesting large surface area for chemical reactions. The large available reservoir volume and surface area in combination with relatively rapid CO 2 -water-rock reactions in basaltic rocks may allow safe and permanent geologic storage of CO 2 on a large scale.

This paper presents 5 km×5 km Arctic emissions inventories of important greenhouse gases, black carbon and other pollutants under existing and future (2050) scenarios that account for growth of shipping in the region, potential diversion... more

This paper presents 5 km×5 km Arctic emissions inventories of important greenhouse gases, black carbon and other pollutants under existing and future (2050) scenarios that account for growth of shipping in the region, potential diversion traffic through emerging routes, and possible emissions control measures. These high-resolution, geospatial emissions inventories for shipping can be used to evaluate Arctic climate sensitivity to black carbon (a short-lived climate forcing pollutant especially effective in accelerating the melting of ice and snow), aerosols, and gaseous emissions including carbon dioxide. We quantify ship emissions scenarios which are expected to increase as declining sea ice coverage due to climate change allows for increased shipping activity in the Arctic. A first-order calculation of global warming potential due to 2030 emissions in the highgrowth scenario suggests that short-lived forcing of ∼4.5 gigagrams of black carbon from Arctic shipping may increase global warming potential due to Arctic ships' CO 2 emissions (∼42 000 gigagrams) by some 17% to 78%. The paper also presents maximum feasible reduction scenarios for black carbon in particular. These emissions reduction scenarios will enable scientists and policymakers to evaluate the efficacy and benefits of technological controls for black carbon, and other pollutants from ships.

Energy crops can be used to feed anaerobic digesters and produce renewable energy. However, sustainability of this option requires that it contributes to a net production of renewable energy and a net reduction of fossil CO 2 emission. In... more

Energy crops can be used to feed anaerobic digesters and produce renewable energy. However, sustainability of this option requires that it contributes to a net production of renewable energy and a net reduction of fossil CO 2 emission. In this paper, the net balance of CO 2 emission and renewable energy production is assessed for maize and grass energy crops produced in several agricultural systems relevant for Southern Belgium and surrounding areas. The calculated net energy yields are 8-25 (maize) and 7.4-15.5 (grass) MWh of renewable CH 4 per MWh of fossil energy invested, depending on the agricultural option considered. After conversion to electricity, the specific CO 2 emissions range from 31 to 104 kg CO 2 MWh À1 electricity , depending on the case considered. This corresponds to a significant reduction in CO 2 emissions compared to the current reference gas-steam turbine technology which produces 456 kg CO 2 MWh À1 electricity .

The atmospheric CO 2 concentration is increasing, due primarily to fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation. Sequestering atmospheric C in agricultural soils is being advocated as a possibility to partially offset fossil-fuel emissions.... more

The atmospheric CO 2 concentration is increasing, due primarily to fossil-fuel combustion and deforestation. Sequestering atmospheric C in agricultural soils is being advocated as a possibility to partially offset fossil-fuel emissions. Sequestering C in agriculture requires a change in management practices, i.e. efficient use of pesticides, irrigation, and farm machinery. The C emissions associated with a change in practices have not traditionally been incorporated comprehensively into C sequestration analyses. A full C cycle analysis has been completed for agricultural inputs, resulting in estimates of net C flux for three crop types across three tillage intensities. The full C cycle analysis includes estimates of energy use and C emissions for primary fuels, electricity, fertilizers, lime, pesticides, irrigation, seed production, and farm machinery. Total C emissions values were used in conjunction with C sequestration estimates to model net C flux to the atmosphere over time. Based on US average crop inputs, no-till emitted less CO 2 from agricultural operations than did conventional tillage, with 137 and 168 kg C ha −1 per year, respectively. Changing from conventional tillage to no-till is therefore estimated to both enhance C sequestration and decrease CO 2 emissions. While the enhanced C sequestration will continue for a finite time, the reduction in net CO 2 flux to the atmosphere, caused by the reduced fossil-fuel use, can continue indefinitely, as long as the alternative practice is continued. Estimates of net C flux, which are based on US average inputs, will vary across crop type and different climate regimes. The C coefficients calculated for agricultural inputs can be used to estimate C emissions and net C flux on a site-specific basis. Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

This paper presents a two-steps optimization procedure of a polygeneration unit. The unit simultaneously provides power, heat, cooling and fresh water to a Spanish tourist resort (450 rooms). The first step consist on the synthesis and... more

This paper presents a two-steps optimization procedure of a polygeneration unit. The unit simultaneously provides power, heat, cooling and fresh water to a Spanish tourist resort (450 rooms). The first step consist on the synthesis and design of the polygeneration scheme: a ''superstructure'' was constructed to allow the selection of the appropriate choice and size of the plant components, from both economic and environmental considerations. At that first step, only monthly averaged requirements are considered. The second step includes hourly data and analysis as well as energy storage systems. A detailed modelling of pre-selected devices is then required to also fulfil economic and environmental constraints. As a result, a better performance is obtained compared to the first step. Thus, the two-steps procedure explained here permits the complete design and operation of a decentralized plant producing simultaneously energy (power, heat and cooling) but also desalted water (that is, trigeneration + desalination). Remarkable benefits for the analyzed case study are found: a Net Present Value of almost 300,000 €, a primary energy saving ratio of about 18% and more than 850 ton per year of avoided CO 2 emissions.

Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO2 emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper... more

Transport is a major user of carbon-based fuels, and achievement of the targets set at the Kyoto Protocol and elsewhere means that the EU and national governments must reduce CO2 emissions in all sectors, including transport. This paper reports on a recently completed study for the UK government on the options available to meet a 60% CO2 reduction target by 2030 in the UK transport sector. The study follows a backcasting study approach, developing a business as usual baseline for transport emissions, and two alternative scenarios to 2030. Different policy measures are assessed and assembled into mutually supporting policy packages (PP). Although 2030 seems a long way ahead, action must be taken now if the targets for CO2 reduction are to be met. The achievement of a carbon-efficient transport future, combined with holding travel levels at present levels, is likely to be very difficult. A major transformation in the way transport and urban planning is carried out is required. As transport and urban planners, we need to think very differently in tackling the new environmental and liveability imperative.

This study investigates the impact of mid-high biodiesel blends on the criteria and PAH emissions from a pick-up diesel vehicle. The vehicle was a Euro 4 (category N1, subclass III) compliant common rail light duty vehicle fitted with a... more

This study investigates the impact of mid-high biodiesel blends on the criteria and PAH emissions from a pick-up diesel vehicle. The vehicle was a Euro 4 (category N1, subclass III) compliant common rail light duty vehicle fitted with a diesel oxidation catalyst. Emission and fuel consumption measurements were performed on a chassis dynamometer using constant volume sampling (CVS) technique, following the European regulations. All measurements were conducted over the NEDC and Artemis driving cycles. Aiming to evaluate the fuel impact on emissions, a soy-based biodiesel, a palm-based biodiesel, and an oxidized biodiesel obtained from used frying oils were blended with an ultra low sulfur diesel at proportions of 30%, 50% and 80% by volume. CO 2 emissions and fuel consumption exhibited increases with biodiesel over all driving conditions which ranged up to 5%. NO x emissions were found to be above the Euro 4 limit and increased with biodiesel between 5% and 10% except for the blends prepared with the palm-based methyl ester. The emissions of PM, HC, and CO decreased with the addition of biodiesel reaching maximum reductions in the order of 10%, 30% and 20% respectively; however, some increases were observed over the NEDC which may be attributed to cold-start. Sharp increases in most PAH, nitro-PAH and oxy-PAH compounds were observed with the application of biodiesel. These increases were particularly noticeable with the use of the oxidized blends, a phenomenon that it is related with the type and quality of this fuel. The emissions were also affected by the operating conditions of the engine. It was found that most PAH compounds were decreased as the mean speed and load of the driving cycle increased.

Operations Research has addressed a variety of environmental problems outside the traditional supply chain management area such as remanufacturing, reverse logistics, and waste management. Supply chain sustainability, which includes... more

Operations Research has addressed a variety of environmental problems outside the traditional supply chain management area such as remanufacturing, reverse logistics, and waste management. Supply chain sustainability, which includes designing green ...

Advanced technological achievements and the continuous growth of the economy have made the disposal, recycle and reuse of industrial by-products a severe challenge. Cement industry is considered as one of the key sectors in this effort,... more

Advanced technological achievements and the continuous growth of the economy have made the disposal, recycle and reuse of industrial by-products a severe challenge. Cement industry is considered as one of the key sectors in this effort, since for the past decades it has been successfully (in terms of not extenuating but improving some of the properties of the final product) absorbing large quantities of solid wastes, either as aggregates or as secondary cementitious materials. This obviously contributes to the creation of an energy and CO 2 -emissions deposit (as commonly used raw materials are spared), but simultaneously it alleviates the acute environmental burden caused by the irresponsible disposal of such by-products. In the content of this study, the possibility of reusing a spent fluid catalytic-cracking catalyst (FCC) as a supplementary cementing material (SCM) was examined. A series of tests were conducted initially aiming at characterizing the material and thereafter evaluating its pozzolanic activity and its effect on the mechanical properties of blended cements. Major findings included in this investigation reveal that the use of FCC as a mineral admixture in cement is feasible, strengthening the belief that siliceous glassy residues should consist a steady supply for the construction sector.

Soil organic carbon (OC) mobilization due to erosional processes can have consequences regarding CO2 emission or sequestration. OC can be mineralized (emitted as CO2 to the atmosphere) during detachment, transport and deposition of soil... more

Soil organic carbon (OC) mobilization due to erosional processes can have consequences regarding CO2 emission or sequestration. OC can be mineralized (emitted as CO2 to the atmosphere) during detachment, transport and deposition of soil particles, or buried in depositional settings, where it can also be stabilized. The contradicting results in the published literature in the last decade point towards a lack of information concerning OC dynamics in relation to different erosion processes at different spatial scales. The objective of this work was to characterize the quantity and type of erosion OC mobilized by the different erosion processes identified at a catchment scale with respect to the original soils where they came from. With the purpose of analysing the type (labile or stable) and quantity of organic carbon (OC) mobilized by different erosive processes identified at the slope-bed connection, the erosion deposits of gullies, sheet erosion, bank erosion and tillage erosion wer...

The transportation sector is responsible for 37% of the total final energy consumption in Jordan, with passenger cars taking a share of 57% in this sector. Improvement of the energy efficiency of the transportation sector can help in... more

The transportation sector is responsible for 37% of the total final energy consumption in Jordan, with passenger cars taking a share of 57% in this sector. Improvement of the energy efficiency of the transportation sector can help in alleviating socio-economic pressures resulting from the inflating fuel bill and in lowering the relatively high CO 2 emission intensity. Current legislations mandate that all passenger cars operating in Jordan are to be powered with spark ignition engines using gasoline fuel. This paper examines potential benefits that can be achieved through the introduction of diesel cars to the passenger cars market in Jordan. Three scenarios are suggested for implementation and investigated with a forecasting model on the basis of local and global trends over the period 2007-2027. It is demonstrated that introducing diesel passenger cars can slow down the growth of energy consumption in the transportation sector resulting in significant savings in the national fuel bill. It is also shown that this is an effective and feasible option for cutting down CO 2 emissions. r

Background, aim, and scope Algae biomass has great promise as a sustainable alternative to conventional transportation fuels. In this study, a well-to-pump life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to investigate the overall... more

Background, aim, and scope Algae biomass has great promise as a sustainable alternative to conventional transportation fuels. In this study, a well-to-pump life cycle assessment (LCA) was performed to investigate the overall sustainability and net energy balance of an algal biodiesel process. The goal of this LCA was to provide baseline information for the algae biodiesel process. Materials and methods The functional unit was 1,000 MJ of energy from algal biodiesel using existing technology. Systematic boundary identification was performed using relative mass, energy, and economic value method using a 5% cutoff value. Primary data for this study were obtained from The USLCI database and the Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions and Energy use in Transportation model. Carbohydrates in coproducts from algae biodiesel production were assumed to displace corn as a feedstock for ethanol production.

Nineteen small lakes located in open landscapes or deciduous forests in nutrient-rich calcareous moraines in North Zealand, Denmark, were all net heterotrophic having negative net ecosystem production and predominant CO 2 supersaturation... more

Nineteen small lakes located in open landscapes or deciduous forests in nutrient-rich calcareous moraines in North Zealand, Denmark, were all net heterotrophic having negative net ecosystem production and predominant CO 2 supersaturation and O 2 undersaturation of lake waters. Forest lakes were poorer in nutrients, phytoplankton, and primary production, but richer in dissolved organic matter and CO 2 than open lakes with more light available. The modeled annual balance between gross primary production and community respiration (GPP/R COM ) averaged 0.60 in forest lakes and 0.76 in open lakes and the ratio increased significantly with phosphorus concentration and phytoplankton biomass but decreased with colored dissolved organic matter. The negative daily rates of ecosystem production resembled estimates of oxygen uptake from the atmosphere to the lakes, whereas estimates of CO 2 emission were 7.2-fold higher. Although CO 2 -rich groundwater and anaerobic respiration support greater molar release of CO 2 than uptake of O 2 , we suggest CO 2 emission is overestimated. Possible explanations include CO 2 enrichment of the air film above small wind-sheltered lakes. The observed metabolism and gas exchange show that exogenous organic matter is an important supplementary energy source to community respiration in these small lakes and that forest lakes, in addition, experience pronounced light attenuation from trees and dissolved colored organic matter constraining primary production.

This paper presents the Danish emission inventory for non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) from the use of solvents in industries and households. Solvent use constitutes approximately one third of the total NMVOC emissions in... more

This paper presents the Danish emission inventory for non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOC) from the use of solvents in industries and households. Solvent use constitutes approximately one third of the total NMVOC emissions in Denmark, i.e. 33,000 tonnes in 2006 and represents 103,000 tonnes CO 2 -equivalents, which constitutes 0.2% of the total Danish CO 2 emissions. NMVOC emissions may be of small concern in relation to CO 2 emissions but they are fundamental in relation to many human and environmental health issues and to long range transport of chemical active species. Use and emission pattern of NMVOCs is diverse and complex, as many chemicals are categorised as NMVOCs and are present in many different industrial activities and products. This new approach utilises detailed information on chemical use, available from the Nordic database substances in preparations in the Nordic countries (SPIN). The database information and methodology can be adopted by other countries in order to reach more precise CO 2 conversion factors and emission inventories.

The potential non-permanence of sequestered CO 2 emissions is a crucial issue to tackle in order to safely include forestry activities among eligible activities for the Clean Development Mechanism. Rather than looking at accurate ways of... more

The potential non-permanence of sequestered CO 2 emissions is a crucial issue to tackle in order to safely include forestry activities among eligible activities for the Clean Development Mechanism. Rather than looking at accurate ways of securing permanent reductions, some experts studied the possibility of delivering temporary licenses as a way of circumventing the respective drawbacks of previously proposed approaches (e.g. Ton-Year Accounting). This paper focuses on this concept of temporary (or expiring) credits and tries to assess its financial viability using different scenario assumptions while bearing in mind the need to protect the CDM's environmental integrity. Our main finding is that the concept of expiring credits (EC) provides a convincing answer to the issue of non-permanence both from an environmental perspective and from a strictly financial point of view (as it has the property of efficiently dealing with uncertainties and therefore hedges the risk). However, given the specific nature of forestry activities compared with other types of CDM projects, the EC concept should be complemented with additional rules and modalities. D

Efficient and rational implementation of building stock CO 2 emission reduction strategies and policies requires the application of comprehensive building stock models that have the ability to: (a) estimate the baseline energy demand of... more

Efficient and rational implementation of building stock CO 2 emission reduction strategies and policies requires the application of comprehensive building stock models that have the ability to: (a) estimate the baseline energy demand of the existing building stock, (b) explore the technical and economic effects of different CO 2 emission reduction strategies over time, including the impact of new technologies, and (c) to identify the effect of emission reduction strategies on indoor environmental quality.

The idea of buying carbon offsets to compensate for one's CO2 emissions has been intensively debated in leaders to editors, statements and reports from environmental organizations. Critics' have claimed that buying carbon offsets is... more

The idea of buying carbon offsets to compensate for one's CO2 emissions has been intensively debated in leaders to editors, statements and reports from environmental organizations. Critics' have claimed that buying carbon offsets is immoral because it allows buyers to pay others to deal with the problem rather than changing their harmful behavior. In this paper, we use rational analysis from moral philosophical theory to analyze moral beliefs about carbon offsetting. We apply the Kantian framework of universalizing maxims and find no support for that CO2 emissions per se are morally impermissible while emissions, exceeding a sustainable level per capita, are morally impermissible. We demonstrate that the individual has a moral duty to buy offsets that are effective on a stock basis (S-effectiveness), for his excess emissions. S-effectiveness is a stronger condition than what carbon offsets available on existing carbon markets fulfill.

The Climate Change debate has drawn attention to the problem of greenhouse gases emissions into the atmosphere. One of the most important issues in the policy debate is the role that should be played by developing countries in joining the... more

The Climate Change debate has drawn attention to the problem of greenhouse gases emissions into the atmosphere. One of the most important issues in the policy debate is the role that should be played by developing countries in joining the commitment of developed countries to reduce GHG emissions, and particularly CO 2 emissions. This debate calls into play the relationship between energy consumption, CO 2 emissions and economic development. In this paper we use a panel data model for 110 world countries to estimate the relationship between CO 2 emissions and GDP and to produce emission forecast. The paper contains three major results: (i) the empirical relationship between carbon dioxide and income is well described by non linear Gamma and Weibull specifications as opposed to more usual linear and log-linear functional forms; (ii) our single equation reduced form model is comparable in terms of forecasted emissions with other more complex, less data driven models; (iii) despite the decreasing marginal propensity to pollute, our forecasts show that future global emissions will rise. The average world growth of CO 2 emissions between 2000 and 2020 is about 2.2% per year, while that of Non Annex 1 countries is posted at 3.3% per year.

Building energy use accounts for almost 50% of the total CO 2 emissions in the UK. Most of the research has focused on reducing the operational impact of buildings, however in recent years many studies have indicated the significance of... more

Building energy use accounts for almost 50% of the total CO 2 emissions in the UK. Most of the research has focused on reducing the operational impact of buildings, however in recent years many studies have indicated the significance of embodied energy in different building types. This paper primarily focuses on illustrating the relative importance of operational and embodied energy in a flexible use light distribution warehouse. The building is chosen for the study as it is relatively easy to model and represents many distribution centres and industrial warehouses in Europe.

This paper explores the reasons why economic instruments of climate change are reluctantly applied and stresses the need for interdisciplinary research linking economic theory and empirical testing to deliberative political procedures. It... more

This paper explores the reasons why economic instruments of climate change are reluctantly applied and stresses the need for interdisciplinary research linking economic theory and empirical testing to deliberative political procedures. It is divided in three parts. The first one recalls the main issues in implementing Cost-Benefit Analysis such as information problems, uncertainties, discounting the future and irreversibilities. The second part shows how these issues can be treated in integrated assessment and techno-economic models and presents a case study, which shows that B. Bürgenmeier ( ) · C. Ferrier · K. Ingold · S. Perret

As contribution to the 'Second Ghana Dams Forum of the National Dialogue on Dams and Development' scientists of the GLOWA Volta Project (GVP) of the Center for Development Research (ZEF, University of Bonn) have undertaken a... more

As contribution to the 'Second Ghana Dams Forum of the National Dialogue on Dams and Development' scientists of the GLOWA Volta Project (GVP) of the Center for Development Research (ZEF, University of Bonn) have undertaken a hydrological assessment of the likely impact of climate change on Black Volta River and the Bui Dam. Two different studies that investigate the impact

During the last two decades, scientists have paid attention to CO2 volcanic emissions and its contribution to the global C budget. Excluding MORBs as a net source of CO2 to the atmosphere, the global CO2 discharge from subaerial volcanism... more

During the last two decades, scientists have paid attention to CO2 volcanic emissions and its contribution to the global C budget. Excluding MORBs as a net source of CO2 to the atmosphere, the global CO2 discharge from subaerial volcanism has been estimated about 300 Mt y-1 and this rate accounts for both visible (plume & fumaroles) and non-visible (diffuse) volcanic gas emanations (Mörner & Etíope, 2002). However, CO2 emissions from volcanic lakes have not been considered to estimate the global CO2 discharge from subaerial volcanoes. In order to improve this global CO2 emission rate and estimate the global CO2 emission from volcanic lakes, an extensive research on CO2 emission of volcanic lakes from Phillipines, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Mexico, Indonesia, Germany, France, Cameroon, Costa Rica, El Salvador and Ecuador had been recently carried out. In-situ measurements of CO2 efflux from the surface environment of volcanic lakes were performed by means of a modified floating device of the accumulation chamber method. To quantify the total CO2 emission from each volcanic lake, CO2 efflux maps were constructed using sequential Gaussian simulations (sGs). CO2 emission rates were normalized by the lake area (km2), and volcanic lakes were grouped following classification in acid, alkaline and neutral lakes. The observed average normalized CO2 emission rate values increase from alkaline (5.5 t km-2 d-1), neutral (210.0 t km-2 d-1), to acid (676.8 t km-2 d-1) volcanic lakes. Taking into account (i) these normalized CO2 emission rates from 31 volcanic lakes, (ii) the number of volcanic lakes in the world (~ 1100), (iii) the fraction of the investigated alkaline (45%), neutral (39%), and acid (16%) volcanic lakes, and (iv) the average areas of the investigated alkaline (36,8 km2), neutral (3,7 km2), and acid (0,5 km2) volcanic lakes; the global CO2 emission from volcanic lakes is about ~ 182 Mt year-1. This estimated value is about ~ 50% of the actual estimated global CO2 discharge from subaerial volcanism. This study highlights the importance of a deeper revision of the actual global CO2 discharge from subaerial volcanism. Mörner N.A. & Etíope, G. Global Plan. Chang, 33, 185-203, 2002.

A vital measure for global warming policy is the marginal impact of a tonne of carbon emitted to the atmosphere. In economic terms, this value corresponds to the carbon tax level needed to internalize the externalities associated with... more

A vital measure for global warming policy is the marginal impact of a tonne of carbon emitted to the atmosphere. In economic terms, this value corresponds to the carbon tax level needed to internalize the externalities associated with climate change. This study re-evaluates the marginal impact of CO 2 emissions in the light of new scientific and economic understanding of the cooling effects of sulphate aerosols and ozone depletion, the regional distribution of global warming damages, non-Unearity in damage as a function of temperature rise and the appropriate discount rate.

An integrated approach to climate change and regional air pollution can harvest considerable ancillary benefits in terms of environmental impacts and costs. This is because both problems are caused to a large extent by the same activity... more

An integrated approach to climate change and regional air pollution can harvest considerable ancillary benefits in terms of environmental impacts and costs. This is because both problems are caused to a large extent by the same activity (fossil fuel combustion). Substantial ancillary benefits were found for regional air pollution (SO 2 , NO x , VOC and particulate matter) of implementing the Kyoto Protocol (intended to control greenhouse gas emissions) in Europe. For instance, while three different scenarios on Kyoto implementation were found to reduce European CO 2 emissions by 4-7%, they also reduced European emissions of SO 2 by 5-14% compared with a no Kyoto policies case. The magnitude of ancillary benefits depends on how flexible mechanisms and surplus emission allowances are used in meeting the Kyoto targets. The total cost savings for implementing current policies for regional air pollution of the Kyoto Protocol are of an order of 2.5-7 billion Euro. In all cases, this is in the order of half the costs of the climate policy (4-12 billion Euro). Using flexible mechanisms reduces emissions of air pollutants for Europe as a whole even further than domestic implementation (e.g. 10-14% versus 5% for SO 2 emissions), but the reductions are shifted from Western Europe to Central and Eastern Europe and Russia. The use of surplus emission allowances to achieve the Kyoto targets decreases the ancillary benefits, in particular for the latter group of countries (e.g. unprotected area against acidification increases from 1.3 to 1.7 million ha).

Besides technical parameters, consumer behavior is the most important issue with respect to energy consumption in households. In this paper, the results of a cross-section analysis of .4ustrian households are presented. The impact of the... more

Besides technical parameters, consumer behavior is the most important issue with respect to energy consumption in households. In this paper, the results of a cross-section analysis of .4ustrian households are presented. The impact of the following parameters on residential energy demand for space heating have been invexigated: (i) thermal quality of buildings; (ii) consumer behavior; (iii) heating degree days;

This paper reviews the literature on travel feedback programs (TFPs). These constitute soft measures designed to change travel behaviour, mainly from automobile to non-automobile travel, in mobility management. We classified TFPs... more

This paper reviews the literature on travel feedback programs (TFPs). These constitute soft measures designed to change travel behaviour, mainly from automobile to non-automobile travel, in mobility management. We classified TFPs according to place, technique, procedure, and communication media, and reviewed the effectiveness of 10 TFPs in Japan. We found that TFPs in Japan reduced CO 2 emissions by about 19% and car use by about 18%, while increasing the use of public transport by about 50%. In addition, we found that TFP effectiveness increased when participants were asked to make behavioural plans to change their travel behaviour. r

Miscanthus 'Giganteus' is a perennial Cd-grass from East Asia. The biomass yield-potential of Miscanthus has been investigated in Germany since 1987. The combustion of biomass offers a possibility for lowering emissions of the greenhouse... more

Miscanthus 'Giganteus' is a perennial Cd-grass from East Asia. The biomass yield-potential of Miscanthus has been investigated in Germany since 1987. The combustion of biomass offers a possibility for lowering emissions of the greenhouse gas COr. The CO2 which is set free during combustion has previously been fixed by the plants. The study analyses the demand for energy and the COremissions which are involved in the production of Miscanthus, beginning with propagating the plants to transporting the biomass to the power station. Energy demand and COr-emissions are compared with those of the provision and combustion of hard coal. The energy content of Miscanthus biomass harvested from one hectare, about 20 t of dry matter, corresponds to the energy content of 12 t hard coal. For each gigajoule of hard coal, 96.6 kg COZ are emitted during provision and combustion. By combusting Miscanthus instead of hard coal 90% of CO*-emissions can be saved.

Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) are gaining attention over the world due to their ability to reduce gasoline/diesel consumption by using electricity from the grid. Despite the efforts of Society of Automotive Engineers Recommended... more

Plug-in hybrid vehicles (PHEVs) are gaining attention over the world due to their ability to reduce gasoline/diesel consumption by using electricity from the grid. Despite the efforts of Society of Automotive Engineers Recommended Practice SAE J1711, it has not yet been established a worldwide methodology for calculation of fuel consumption and emission factors when regarding emission standards, with distinct driving cycles. This paper intends to contribute to the creation of this broader methodology, based on SAE J1711, aiming a fair comparison among vehicle technologies, and giving insight on electric grid impact and on CO 2 life-cycle emissions. The methodology was applied to two simulated PHEVs exploring two different powertrain configurations: series and parallel; different driving cycles: CAFE, FTP75, NEDC and JC08; different driving distances (specially analyzing the average commuting daily distance of 20 km) and different user behaviours regarding battery recharging. CO 2 emissions were calculated for fuel consumption, electricity generation and cradle-to-grave. Electric grid power demand was estimated. Maintenance, manufacturer and use costs were discussed.

Soybean production and its supply chain are highly dependent on inputs such as land, fertilizer, fuel, machines, pesticides and electricity. The expansion of this crop in Brazil in recent decades has generated concerns about its... more

Soybean production and its supply chain are highly dependent on inputs such as land, fertilizer, fuel, machines, pesticides and electricity. The expansion of this crop in Brazil in recent decades has generated concerns about its environmental impacts. To assess these impacts, two representative chains supplying soybeans to Europe were identified: Center West (CW) and Southern (SO) Brazil. Each supply chain was analyzed using Life Cycle Assessment methodology. We considered different levels of use of chemical and organic fertilizers, pesticides and machinery, different distances for transportation of inputs and different yield levels. Because transportation contributed strongly to environmental impacts, a detailed study was performed to identify the routes used to transport soybeans to seaports. Additionally, we considered different levels of land occupation and land transformation to represent the impact of deforestation in the CW region. Environmental impacts were calculated for 1000 kg of soybean up to and including the delivery to Europe at the seaport in Rotterdam, at 13% humidity. Overall results showed that the impacts are greater for CW than for SO for all impact categories studied, including acidification (7.7 and 5.3 kg SO 2 eq., respectively), climate change (959 and 510 kg CO 2 eq.), cumulative energy demand (12,634 and 6,999 MJ) and terrestrial ecotoxicity (4.9 and 3.1 kg 1,4-DCB eq.), except eutrophication and land occupation. The same trend was observed for the crop-production stage. Efforts to reduce chemical fertilizers and diesel consumption can reduce CO 2 emissions. Although deforestation for crop production has decreased in recent years, the contribution of deforestation to climate change and cumulative energy demand remains significant. In the CW scenario deforestation contributed 29% to climate change and 20% to cumulative energy demand. Results also showed that although there are different transportation options in Brazil, the current predominance of road transport causes severe environmental impacts. In CW, road transport contributed 19% to climate change and 24% to cumulative energy demand, while in SO it contributed 12% and 15% to these impacts, respectively. Improvements in the logistics of transportation, giving priority to rail and river transports over road transport, can contribute significantly to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and decreasing energy use. Future studies involving Brazilian soybeans should take into account the region of origin as different levels of environmental impact are predicted.

The Sino-Italy Environment & Energy Building (SIEEB) is an intelligent, ecological and energyefficient building and seen as a model for a new generation of sustainable buildings. This paper describes the integrated design procedure for... more

The Sino-Italy Environment & Energy Building (SIEEB) is an intelligent, ecological and energyefficient building and seen as a model for a new generation of sustainable buildings. This paper describes the integrated design procedure for the SIEEB building design and the methodologies adopted for sustainable architecture and energy saving measures by using advanced technological solutions and control strategies. The results on the building energy simulation, plant optimisation and first estimation of CO 2 emission reduction potential through SIEEB are also presented.

The paper first describes an inventory for 2005 giving the tourism related CO 2 emission caused by global tourism, and presents a 30-year projection and a 45-year simulation. The study found that tourists cause 4.4% of global CO 2... more

The paper first describes an inventory for 2005 giving the tourism related CO 2 emission caused by global tourism, and presents a 30-year projection and a 45-year simulation. The study found that tourists cause 4.4% of global CO 2 emissions. Also these emissions are projected to grow at an average rate of 3.2% per year up to 2035. This increase is problematic as globally a reduction of emissions by 3-6% is required to avoid 'dangerous' climate change. Using contemporary scenario techniques it appeared difficult to find a future tourist travel system consistent with CO 2 emission reductions of up to 70% by 2050 with respect to 2005. Based on the model underlying the 30-year projection, 70 scenarios are presented in a 'landscape' graph exploring the effect of opportunities to reduce the emissions, but this attempt did not reach the large reductions envisaged. We therefore explored automated scenario generation as a way to define backcasting scenarios that both reach the emission reduction target and retain the highest possible economic value for the sector. The main contributions made by this study are (1) in comparing the value of different ways to approach a (desired) future and (2) giving insight into the kind of structural changes required within tourism and tourism transport in case very strong emission reductions are required. Finally the model showed signs of 'complex' behaviour.

A preliminary study for a source-sink match for application of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Portugal is presented. The location of the main CO 2 emission sources in Portugal, existing and planned, was analysed and three main source... more

A preliminary study for a source-sink match for application of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Portugal is presented. The location of the main CO 2 emission sources in Portugal, existing and planned, was analysed and three main source clusters, emitting a total of 26.8 Mt/year, were defined. The three source clusters are connected by a natural gas pipeline network.

Deforestation is a major source of CO2 emissions, accounting for around 17% of total annual anthropogenic carbon release. While the cost estimates of reducing deforestation rates vary considerably depending on model assumptions, it is... more

Deforestation is a major source of CO2 emissions, accounting for around 17% of total annual anthropogenic carbon release. While the cost estimates of reducing deforestation rates vary considerably depending on model assumptions, it is widely accepted that emissions reductions from avoided deforestation consist of a relatively low cost mitigation option. Halting deforestation is therefore not only a major ecological challenge, but also a great opportunity to cost effectively reduce climate change negative impacts. In this paper we analyze the impact of introducing avoided deforestation credits into the European carbon market using a multiregional Computable General Equilibrium model -the ICES model (Inter-temporal Computable Equilibrium System). Taking into account political concerns over a possible "flooding" of REDD credits, various limits to the number of REDD allowances entering the carbon market are considered. Finally, unlike previous studies, we account for both direct and indirect effects occurring on land and timber markets resulting from lower deforestation rates. We conclude that avoided deforestation notably reduces climate change policy costs -by approximately 80% with unlimited availability of REDD credits -and may drastically reduce carbon prices. Policy makers may, however, effectively control for these imposing limits to avoided deforestation credits use. Moreover, avoided deforestation has the additional positive effect of reducing carbon leakage of a unilateral European climate change policy. This is good news for the EU, but not necessarily for REDD regions. Indeed we show that REDD revenues are not sufficient to compensate REDD regions for a less leakage-affected and more competitive EU in international markets. In fact, REDD regions would prefer to free ride on the EU unilateral mitigation policy.

Climate change, as an environmental hazard operating at the global scale, poses a unique and ''involuntary exposure'' to many societies, and therefore represents possibly the largest health inequity of our time. According to statistics... more

Climate change, as an environmental hazard operating at the global scale, poses a unique and ''involuntary exposure'' to many societies, and therefore represents possibly the largest health inequity of our time. According to statistics from the World Health Organization (WHO), regions or populations already experiencing the most increase in diseases attributable to temperature rise in the past 30 years ironically contain those populations least responsible for causing greenhouse gas warming of the planet. Average global carbon emissions approximate one metric ton per year (tC/yr) per person. In 2004, United States per capita emissions neared 6 tC/yr (with Canada and Australia not far behind), and Japan and Western European countries range from 2 to 5 tC/yr per capita. Yet developing countries' per capita emissions approximate 0.6 tC/yr, and more than 50 countries are below 0.2 tC/yr (or 30-fold less than an average American). This imbalance between populations suffering from an increase in climate-sensitive diseases versus those nations producing greenhouse gases that cause global warming can be quantified using a ''natural debt'' index, which is the cumulative depleted CO 2 emissions per capita. This is a better representation of the responsibility for current warming than a single year's emissions. By this measure, for example, the relative responsibilities of the U.S. in relation to those of India or China is nearly double that using an index of current emissions, although it does not greatly change the relationship between India and China. Rich countries like the U.S. have caused much more of today's warming than poor ones, which have not been emitting at significant levels for many years yet, no matter what current emissions indicate. Along with taking necessary measures to reduce the extent of global warming and the associated impacts, society also needs to pursue equitable solutions that first protect the most vulnerable population groups; be they defined by demographics, income, or location. For example, according to the WHO, 88% of the disease burden attributable to climate change afflicts children under age 5 (obviously an innocent and ''nonconsenting'' segment of the population), presenting another major axis of inequity. Not only is the health burden from climate change itself greatest among the world's poor, but some of the major mitigation approaches to reduce the degree of warming may produce negative side effects disproportionately among the poor, for example, competition for land from biofuels creating pressure on food prices. Of course, in today's globalized world, eventually all nations will share some risk, but underserved populations will suffer first and most strongly from climate change. Moreover, growing recognition that society faces a nonlinear and

This project is to analyse the value and functionality of the New Zealand Green Star green building rating system. By applying the Green Star Educational Tools to two case study buildings, the attributes and ease of applicability will be... more

This project is to analyse the value and functionality of the New Zealand Green Star green building rating system. By applying the Green Star Educational Tools to two case study buildings, the attributes and ease of applicability will be determined. Both case study buildings are Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology buildings; the School of Tourism has been recently completed and uses concrete as the main material, while the School of Arts and Media will be using timber for its structure A literature review was undertaken to evaluate; The intentions and motivations behind green building rating systems, the organisation and considerations of green building rating systems, the specific approach taken by Green Star New Zealand in its Educational Tool, and finally why the use of timber as a construction material has less of an environmental impact and why this should be incorporated into green building rating systems.

To analyze and understand historical changes in economic, environmental, employment or other socio-economic indicators, it is useful to assess the driving forces or determinants that underlie these changes. Two techniques for decomposing... more

To analyze and understand historical changes in economic, environmental, employment or other socio-economic indicators, it is useful to assess the driving forces or determinants that underlie these changes. Two techniques for decomposing indicator changes at the sector level are structural decomposition analysis (SDA) and index decomposition analysis (IDA). For example, SDA and IDA have been used to analyze changes in indicators such as energy use, CO -emissions, labor demand and value added. The changes in these variables are decom-2 posed into determinants such as technological, demand, and structural effects. SDA uses information from input-output tables while IDA uses aggregate data at the sector-level. The two methods have developed quite independently, which has resulted in each method being characterized by specific, unique techniques and approaches. This paper has three aims. First, the similarities and differences between the two approaches are summarized. Second, the possibility of transferring specific techniques and indices is explored. Finally, a numerical example is used to illustrate differences between the two approaches. ᮊ

The recent awareness about fossil fuels and the environment has arisen more sustainable alternatives regarding means of transport. The first alternative of green transport has been hybrid vehicles. This kind of vehicles reduces... more

The recent awareness about fossil fuels and the environment has arisen more sustainable alternatives regarding means of transport. The first alternative of green transport has been hybrid vehicles. This kind of vehicles reduces significantly the CO2 emission but not totally. Nowadays, the current trend is the utilization of a unique motor for vehicle. i.e. an electrical motor. It seems that the electric vehicles (EV) will become the cars of the future.