Trees Research Papers - Academia.edu (original) (raw)

This is my dissertation for my Masters in Applied Theology completed in 2014. I explored the relationship between faith development (mostly using James Fowler's model but with reference to others) and the way people respond to images. I... more

- by
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- Trees, Faith Development Theory, David Hockney, Art Appreciation

This article discusses the critical remarks and comments that Omer Bartov, Eric Katz and Jessica Rapson offered in response to our articles published in the theme issue of the Journal of Genocide Research on "The Environmental History of the Holocaust." In our response, we clarify our understanding of how an environmental perspective can contribute to Holocaust studies. We focus on three issues; firstly: we position our research in the context of critical Holocaust studies, an emerging field in Poland, in order to draw attention to the geographically conditioned global distribution of knowledge and thus undermine convictions that non-Western humanities are necessarily peripheral. Secondly, we emphasize that the comparative perspective we adopt to address different genocides and ecocides neither seeks to undermine the uniqueness of the Holocaust nor deprive victims and survivors of their individual identity. What we do resembles the “experiments in thinking about the Holocaust” proposed by Alan Milchman and Alan Rosenberg, demonstrating that new approaches to Holocaust studies do not want to compete with dominant modes of research, but rather supplement and complement them. Thirdly, we argue that transcending the anthropocentric perspective in Holocaust studies can expand the spectrum of testimonies and evidence to also include non-human objects, such as trees. What we propose, then, is an analysis of new kinds of sources in an effort towards developing new approaches and methods for exploring this subject. We show how current ecological debates mean that it is crucial to take into account environmental factors when planning sites of Holocaust commemoration. In light of this, we not only ask how an environmental history of the Holocaust can expand knowledge on the relationship between genocides and ecocides, but also how future-oriented thinking about the legacies of the Holocaust can influence strategies and practices of preserving it. We see potential in posing questions relating to how the Holocaust can provide a point of reference for studying other genocides as well as how an environmental (and also indigenous and postcolonial) perspective can further develop and enrich research on the Shoah.

- by Ewa Domańska and +2
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- Environmental History, Colonialism, Environmental Ethics, Ecocide

Pollen immigration can offset the effects of genetic drift and inbreeding in small populations. To understand the genetic consequences of forest fragmentation, estimates of pollen flow into remnant fragments are essential. Such estimates are straightforward for plants with singly sired, multiseeded fruits, since the pollen donor genotype for each fruit can be unambiguously reconstructed through full-sib genealogical analyses. Allozyme analyses were used to estimate pollen donor numbers from the progeny of fruits of the tropical dry forest tree Enterolobium cyclocarpum in a small (9.8 ha) fragmented population (N = 11) over three reproductive seasons (1994, 1995, and 1996). These analyses indicate that each tree receives pollen from many pollen donors. When data are pooled for the site, estimated maximum pollen donor pool sizes in all years exceed the number of individuals (56) in the 227 ha study area. Although unidentified pollen donors may be located as close as 250 m to the study...

- by John Nason
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- Genetics, Genetic Drift, Reproduction, Costa Rica

A survey was conducted to evaluate the number of tree-hole breeding mosquito species and their distribution in the six principal woodland types in Israel. Out of approximately 3,000 mature trees examined, only 38 contained holes that retained water for extended periods of time, and breeding mosquitoes were observed in 27 of them. Two specialized tree-hole breeders, Aedes pulchritarsis Rondani and Aedes geniculatus Oliver, were found breeding at several sites in northern Israel, always at locations 500 m above sea level (a.s.l) and with high annual precipitation. Aedes albopictus Skuse which, in Israel, is known as an opportunistic container breeder, was found in this study to have adapted remarkably well to breeding in tree holes and was found in most forest types investigated and in most tree species which had adequate tree holes. Two other species, Culiseta annulata Schrank and Culex pipiens Linnaeus instars, were found in one of the tree holes, but did not survive to reach maturity. Journal of Vector Ecology 37 (1): xxx-xxx. 2012.

- by Vasiliy Kravchenko and +1
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- Israel, Biological Sciences, Trees, VECTOR

Ce volume comporte trois chapitres : le premier décrit les linéaments d'une doctrine archaïque de la « phusis » visant toujours à connaître la « nature » de chaque chose, cet ensemble de caractéristiques qui fonde sa puissance, sa capacité d'agir ; le second décrit une représentation archaïque de l'Univers au moyen du schème de la croissance végétale, reconnu dans l'usage du verbe « phuô » et la poursuit jusqu'à la grande synthèse de la cosmologie archaïque, telle qu'elle s'énonce dans la deuxième partie du poème de Parménide : l'Univers est comme une grande plante qui croît et distribue l'ensemble des « natures » des choses. Le schème de la croissance et celui de la distribution des natures convergent ainsi pour esquisser la première représentation globale d'un tout cosmique organisé. La troisième partie est consacrée au débat qui, dans le deuxième Ve siècle, autour de « l'enquête sur la nature », chez les sophistes et les médecins, accompagne l'apparition d'un tout de plus en plus homogène, mais néanmoins susceptible de plusieurs visages : ainsi celui de l'homogénéité du mode de production de toutes choses ou celui de la distribution des natures de toutes choses. La Nature commence à paraître, oscillant entre une logique génétique et une logique distributive : c'est ainsi que s'accomplit une histoire qui fait progressivement du terme distribué à toutes choses pour décrire leurs puissances respectives le nom du tout organisé où chacune trouve sa place.

- by Arnaud Macé
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- Homer, Presocratic Philosophy, Plato, Aristotle

Photon flux density (PFD) and water availability, the daily and seasonal factors that vary most in tropical environments, were examined to see how they influenced expression of crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) in 3year-old Clusia shrubs native to Panama. Instead of the commonly used single-leaf approach, diel CO 2 exchange was measured for whole individual canopies of plants in large soil containers inside a naturally illuminated 8.8 m 3 chamber. In well-watered C. rosea, a mainly constitutive CAM species, nocturnally fixed CO 2 contributed about 50% to 24 h carbon gain on sunny days but the contribution decreased to zero following overcast days. Nonetheless, CO 2 fixation in the light responded in such a way that 24 h carbon gain was largely conserved across the range of daily PFDs. The response of C. rosea to drought was similarly buffered. A facultative component of CAM expression led to reversible increases in nocturnal carbon gain that offset drought-induced reductions of CO 2 fixation in the light. Clusia cylindrica was a C 3 plant when well-watered but exhibited CAM when subjected to water stress. The induction of CAM was fully reversible upon rewatering. C. cylindrica joins C. pratensis as the most unambiguous facultative CAM species reported in the genus Clusia.

- by Milton N. Garcia J.
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- Botany, Carbon Dioxide, Photosynthesis, Plant Biology

Reforestation with trees and shrubs may be an effective means of increasing soil organic matter content and for regeneration of degraded lands. A study was conducted on a degraded farmland Chromic Luvisol (UNESCO/FAO) or Udic Rhodustalf (USDA, 1999) in the moist semi decidu-ous zone of West Africa, near Onwe, located at latitude 06o 41 ’ N, longitude 01o 28 ’ W, and at an altitude of 305m asl. The objective of the study was to quantify the improvement in soil physico-chemical properties of degraded Chromic Luvisol with exotic leguminous tree species compared to grass vegetation in the moist semi-deciduous zone of West Africa. To quantify changes due to reforestation, we measured some physical and chemical properties of soil after 20 years (1989 – 2009) of reforestation with Acacia angustissima (Acacia), Cassia siamea (Cassia), and Leucaena leucocephala (Leucaena) mixed and compared with soils under natural grass vegetation. Experi-mental design used for soil sampling and for evaluat...

- by Akwasi Adutwum Abunyewa
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- Reforestation, Soil organic matter, Trees

Changes in ecosystem functions following disturbances are of central concern in ecology and a challenge for ecologists is to understand the factors that affect the resilience of community structures and ecosystem functions. In many forest ecosystems, one such important natural disturbance is fire. The aim of this study was to understand the variation of resilience in six functional groups of invertebrates in response to different fire frequencies in southern Switzerland. We measured resilience by analysing arthropod species composition, abundance and diversity in plots where the elapsed time after single or repeated fires, as determined by dendrochronology, varied. We compared data from these plots with data from plots that had not burned recently and defined high resilience as the rapid recovery of the species composition to that prior to fire. Pooling all functional groups showed that they were more resilient to single fires than to repeated events, recovering 6–14 years after a single fire, but only 17–24 years after the last of several fires. Flying zoophagous and phytophagous arthropods were the most resilient groups. Pollinophagous and epigaeic zoophagous species showed intermediate resilience, while ground-litter saprophagous and saproxylophagous arthropods clearly displayed the lowest resilience to fire. Their species composition 17–24 years post-burn still differed markedly from that of the unburned control plots. Depending on the fire history of a forest plot, we found significant differences in the dominance hierarchy among invertebrate species. Any attempt to imitate natural disturbances, such as fire, through forest management must take into account the recovery times of biodiversity, including functional group composition, to ensure the conservation of multiple taxa and ecosystem functions in a sustainable manner.

- by Marco Moretti
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- Ecology, Fire History, Biodiversity, Forest Management

Grazing is a complex process involving the simultaneous occurrence of both trampling and defoliation. Clonal plants are a common feature of heavily grazed ecosystems where large herbivores inflict the simultaneous pressures of trampling and defoliation on the vegetation. We test the hypothesis that physiological integration (resource sharing between interconnected ramets) may help plants to deal with the interactive effects of trampling and defoliation. In a field study, small and large ramets of the root-suckering clonal tree Populus simonii were subjected to two levels of trampling and defoliation, while connected or disconnected to other ramets. Plant responses were quantified via survival, growth, morphological and stem mechanical traits. Disconnection and trampling increased mortality, especially in small ramets. Trampling increased stem length, basal diameter, fibrous root mass, stem stiffness and resistance to deflection in connected ramets, but decreased them in disconnected...

- by Niels Anten and +1
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- Biomass, Plant Biology, Ecology, Resource sharing

Measurements of the net radiation balance of two forested sites on the opposite slopes of a valley in south-western Germany, made over 3 years, are presented in this study. Radiation sensors were mounted horizontally on two measurement towers above two beech stands. The direct part of the measured short-wave incoming radiation was adjusted according to the slope's angle to convert horizontally measured radiation data into surfaceparallel radiation fluxes. During periods when contemporaneous measurements of slope-parallel and horizontal radiation fluxes were available, the calculation of surfaceparallel radiation fluxes from the horizontally recorded net radiation components were compared with measured values. The net radiative fluxes parallel to the slopes were calculated for a period of 36 months and analysed. Results show that the different aspects of both sites cause significant differences of the net radiation balance. In June, when the elevation of the sun is highest, incoming solar radiation K# received on the NE-slope was 9% lower than K# received on the SW-slope. During the winter months, the differences were much greater and incoming solar radiation to the NE-slope was 50% of that to the SWslope. Due to the differing solar irradiance, net radiation fluxes were significantly higher on the SW-slope than on the NE-slope. For long-wave radiation only small differences between both slopes could be found. Since radiative fluxes determine the energy balance and hence the microclimate and water balance of a forest stand, these differences in the net radiation balance between the slopes are important for the vegetation.

- by Thomas Holst
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- Environmental Monitoring, Biometeorology, Germany, Atmospheric sciences

A coloring of a graph G is an assignment of colors to its vertices so that no two adjacent vertices have the same color. We study the problem of coloring permutation graphs using certain properties of the lattice representation of a permutation and relationships between permutations, directed acyclic graphs and rooted trees having speciÿc key properties. We propose an e cient parallel algorithm which colors an n-node permutation graph in O(log 2 n) time using O(n 2 =log n) processors on the CREW PRAM model. Speciÿcally, given a permutation we construct a tree T * [ ], which we call coloring-permutation tree, using certain combinatorial properties of. We show that the problem of coloring a permutation graph is equivalent to ÿnding vertex levels in the coloring-permutation tree.

- by Stavros D. Nikolopoulos
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- Mathematics, Applied Mathematics, Computer Science, Parallel Algorithms

: The quantitative description of cell structures in light microscope images is an important task in biological research. The inclusion of digital image processing techniques and fluorescent markers into light microscope imaging has recently made this task feasible. In this paper, we present a method for detection of filamentary structures in cell images that have been highlighted with fluorescent markers. The method has three stages. First, pixels belonging to fiber contours are extracted from the image. Then these pixels are grouped together based on proximity by a minimal spanning tree. Finally, the fiber contours are determined as sub-trees of the minimal spanning tree. Once the pixels belonging to individual fibers contours have been determined, quantitative statistics describing the fibers in the cell can be calculated.

- by Raul Valdes-Perez
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- Mathematics, Algorithms, Statistics, Image Processing

Key message Hypocotyl semi-dwarfism in BP was only due to less cell number. Daylight was required to inhibit cell division in the mutant. ABA, IAA and cytokinins would be involved. Abstract Coffea arabica 'Laurina' is a natural mutant of Coffea arabica 'Bourbon' (B) and is known under the trade name 'Bourbon Pointu' (BP). Under daylight, the laurina mutation leads to pleiotropic effects, including semi-dwarf hypocotyls. At the opposite, semi-dwarfism of BP seedlings disappeared under darkness conditions. The first step was to describe the morphological impact of the mutation in seedlings growing under daylight by comparison with seedlings growing under darkness. As the hypocotyl length was mainly affected, the second step was to investigate histological modifications in the organ comparing B and BP seedlings growing under daylight. Result of this investigation indicated that the mutation does not impact on cell length. Moreover, cytometry analyses showed absence of endoreduplication. Actually, the mutation influenced the cell number and this effect appeared before the 40th day after sowing. The length difference of hypocotyls between B and BP was due to lower cell number in BP, indicating possible involvement of phytohormones. Investigations showed the decrease of cytokinin and auxin levels in BP compared to B, while the cytokinin/auxin ratio remained constant in both varieties. By contrast, abscisic acid content increased in BP. Concurrently these results indicate the lowering of cell division, due to the mutation. Keywords Coffea arabica 'Laurina' Á Hypocotyl semidwarfism Á Cell division Á Auxin Á Cytokinin Á Abscisic acid Communicated by F. Canovas.

- by Jean-luc Verdeil
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- Plant Biology, Trees, Forestry Sciences

Within the sheltered creeks of Ca Â diz bay, Ulva thalli form extended mat-like canopies. The effect of solar ultraviolet radiation on photosynthetic activity, the composition of photosynthetic and xanthophyll cycle pigments, and the amount of RubisCO, chaperonin 60 (CPN 60), and the induction of DNA damage in Ulva aff. rotundata Bliding from southern Spain was assessed in the ®eld. Samples collected from the natural community were covered by screening ®lters, generating different radiation conditions. During daily cycles, individual thalli showed photoinhibitory effects of the natural solar radiation. This inhibition was even more pronounced in samples only exposed to photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). Strongly increased heat dissipation in these samples indicated the activity of regulatory mechanisms involved in dynamic photoinhibition. Adverse effects of UV-B radiation on photosynthesis were only observed in combination with high levels of PAR, indicating the synergistic effects of the two wavelength ranges. In samples exposed either to PAR+UV-A or to UV-B+UV-A without PAR, no inhibition of photosynthetic quantum yield was found in the course of the day. At the natural site, the top layer of the mat-like canopies is generally completely bleached. Arti®cially designed Ulva canopies exhibited fast bleaching of the top layer under the natural solar radiation conditions, while this was not observed in canopies either shielded from UV or from PAR. The bleached ®rst layer of the canopies acts as a selective UV-B ®lter, and thus prevents subcanopy thalli from exposure to harmful radiation. This was con®rmed by the differences in photosynthetic activity, pigment composition, and the concentration of RubisCO in thalli with different positions within the canopy. In addition, the induction of the stress protein CPN 60 under UV exposure and the low accumulation of DNA damage indicate the presence of physiological protection mechanisms against harmful UV-B. A mechanism of UV-B-induced inhibition of photosynthesis under ®eld conditions is proposed.

- by Jose Lucas Perez-Llorens
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- Plant Biology, DNA damage, Spain, Experimental Botany

Epidermal changes caused by a chytridiomycete fungus (Chytridiomycota; Chytridiales) were found in sick and dead adult anurans collected from montane rain forests in Queensland (Australia) and Panama during mass mortality events associated with significant population declines. We also have found this new disease associated with morbidity and mortality in wild and captive anurans from additional locations in Australia and Central America. This is the first report of parasitism of a vertebrate by a member of the phylum Chytridiomycota. Experimental data support the conclusion that cutaneous chytridiomycosis is a fatal disease of anurans, and we hypothesize that it is the proximate cause of these recent amphibian declines.

- by dip putradi
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- Tropical Ecology, Australia, Scanning Electron Microscopy, Population Dynamics

The objective of this study was to determine the relationship between light levels in the understory of a broadleaf forest and the content of six ginsenosides (Rg 1 , Re, Rb 1 , Rc, Rb 2, and Rd) in 1-and 2-year-old American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius L.) roots. Our results revealed that ginsenoside contents in 1-and 2 year-old roots collected in September were significantly related to direct and total light levels, and duration of sunflecks. At this time, the effect of light levels accounted for up to 48 and 62% of the variation in ginsenoside contents of 1-and 2-year-old American ginseng roots. Also, red (R) and far red (FR) light, and the R:FR ratio significantly affected Rd, Rc, and Rg 1 contents in 2-year-old roots, accounting for up to 40% of the variation in ginsenoside contents. Crown

- by Shahrokh Khanizadeh
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- Forestry, Horticulture, Phytochemistry, Forest Ecology And Management

We investigated whether the degree of light inhibition of leaf respiration (R) differs among large Eucalyptus saligna grown in whole-tree chambers and exposed to present and future atmospheric [CO2] and summer drought. Associated with month-to-month changes in temperature were concomitant changes in R in the light (Rlight) and darkness (Rdark), with both processes being more temperature dependent in well-watered trees than under drought. Overall rates of Rlight and Rdark were not significantly affected by [CO2]. By contrast, overall rates of Rdark (averaged across both [CO2]) were ca. 25% lower under drought than in well-watered trees. During summer, the degree of light inhibition of leaf R was greater in droughted (ca. 80% inhibition) than well-watered trees (ca. 50% inhibition). Notwithstanding these treatment differences, an overall positive relationship was observed between Rlight and Rdark when data from all months/treatments were combined (R 2 = 0.8). Variations in Rlight were also positively correlated with rates of Rubisco activity and nitrogen concentration. Light inhibition resulted in a marked decrease in the proportion of light-saturated photosynthesis respired (i.e. reduced R/Asat). Collectively, these results highlight the need to account for light inhibition when assessing impacts of global change drivers on the carbon economy of tree canopies.

- by David Tissue
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- Water, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon, Photosynthesis

Bark extracts from the Amazonian rain forest tree Geissospermum vellosii (pao pereira), enriched in alpha-carboline alkaloids have significant anticancer activities in certain preclinical models. Because of the predominance of prostate cancer as a cause of cancer-related morbidity and mortality for men of Western countries, we preclinically tested the in vitro and in vivo effects of a pao pereira extract against a prototypical human prostate cancer cell line, LNCaP. When added to cultured LNCaP cells, pao pereira extract significantly suppressed cell growth in a dose-dependent fashion and induced apoptosis. Immunodeficient mice heterotopically xenografted with LNCaP cells were gavaged daily with pao pereira extract or vehicle control over 6 weeks. Tumor growth was suppressed by up to 80% in some groups compared with tumors in vehicle-treated mice. However, we observed a striking U-shaped dose-response curve in which the highest dose tested (50 mg/kg/d) was much less effective in ind...

- by Ralph Buttyan and +1
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- Apoptosis, Mice, Trees, Plant extracts

In the United States, the common interest often is conceived as a by-product of the pluralist, interest-groupdriven democratic process. Special interests dominate in many political arenas. Consequently, we have lost the language, vocabulary, and ability to talk about the common interest. The way to reverse this trend is to develop and practice with new tools that allow us to articulate what we mean by the common interest in specific contexts. In this article, we leveraged the literature on procedural, substantive, and pragmatic decision making to illustrate how they work together to demonstrate whether and how the common interest was served in three case studies of Healthy Forests Restoration Act implementation on the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forest in Arizona. In two of the cases we found that the common interest was mostly served, while in the third case it was not. Our results raise questions about the ability of procedural criteria or substantive criteria alone to determine effectiveness in decision making. When evaluated together they provide a more complete understanding of how the common interest is or is not served.

- by Toddi Steelman
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- Forestry, Decision Making, Case Studies, Environmental Management

Latitudinal shifts in tree species distributions are a potential impact of climate change on forest ecosystems. It has been hypothesized that some tree species may become extirpated as climate change effects may exceed their migration ability. The goal of this study was to compare tree species compositions in northern urban areas to tree compositions in forestland areas in the eastern U.S. as an indicator of the potential for urban trees to facilitate future forest tree species migration. Results indicated that a number of tree species native to eastern U.S. forests of southern latitudes are currently present in northern urban forests. The biomass density (Mg/ha) of urban tree species is typically less than half of forestland densities with the majority of urban tree species found in nearby (<100 km) forestland. Urban tree propagation is often facilitated by humans, whereas the necessary pollinators and agents of tree seed dispersal in forestlands may be lacking regardless of climate change. It is suggested that urban areas may serve divergent, dual roles as both a native tree seed source and refuge for a limited number of forestland tree species, but also a facilitator of non-native tree invasion.

- by David Nowak
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- Forestry, Climate Change, Migration, Seed Dispersal

The frequency of hybridization in plants is context dependent and can be influenced by the local mating environment. We used progeny arrays and admixture and pollen dispersal analyses to assess the relative importance of pre-mating reproductive barriers and the local demographic environment as explanations of variation in hybrid frequency in three mapped hybrid zones of Eucalyptus aggregata and E. rubida. A total of 731 openpollinated progeny from 36 E. aggregata maternal parents were genotyped using six microsatellite markers. Admixture analysis identified substantial variation in hybrid frequency among progeny arrays (0-76.9%). In one hybrid zone, hybrid frequency was related to pre-mating barriers (degree of flowering synchrony) and demographic components of the local mating environment (decreasing population size, closer proximity to E. rubida and hybrid trees). At this site, average pollen dispersal distance was less and almost half (46%) of the hybrid progeny were sired by local E. rubida and hybrid trees. In contrast, at the other two sites, pre-mating and demographic factors were not related to hybrid frequency. Compared to the first hybrid zone where most of the E. rubida (76%) and all hybrids flowered, in the remaining sites fewer E. rubida (22-41%) and hybrid trees (0-50%) flowered and their reproductive success was lower (sired 0-23% of hybrids). As a result, most hybrids were sired by external E. rubida ⁄ hybrids located at least 2-3 km away. These results indicate that although pre-mating barriers and local demography can influence patterns of hybridization, their importance can depend upon the scale of pollen dispersal.

- by David Ayre
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- Geography, Reproduction, Seed Dispersal, Hybridization

We are interested in coloring the edges of a mixed graph, i.e., a graph containing unoriented and oriented edges. This problem is related to a communication problem in job-shop scheduling systems. In this paper we give general bounds on the number of required colors and analyze the complexity status of this problem. In particular, we provide N Pcompleteness results for the case of outerplanar graphs, as well as for 3-regular bipartite graphs (even when only 3 colors are allowed, or when 5 colors are allowed and the graph is fully oriented). Special cases admitting polynomial-time solutions are also discussed.

- by Hanna Furmańczyk
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- Applied Mathematics, Communication, Complexity, Scheduling
- by Pete Smith
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- Soil, Carbon, Climate, Multidisciplinary

In this paper, we review some critical issues regarding carbon cycling in Amazonia, as revealed by several studies conducted in the Large Scale Biosphere Atmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA). We evaluate both the contribution of this magnificent biome for the global net primary productivity/net ecosystem exchange (NPP/NEE) and the feedbacks of climate change on the dynamics of Amazonia. In order to place Amazonia in a global perspective and make the carbon flux obtained through the LBA project comparable with global carbon budgets, we extrapolated NPP/NEE values found by LBA studies to the entire area of the Brazilian Amazon covered by rainforest. The carbon emissions due to land use changes for the tropical regions of the world produced values from 0.96 to 2.4 Pg C year À1 , while atmospheric CO 2 inversion models have recently indicated that tropical lands in the Americas could be exchanging a net 0.62±1.15 Pg C year À1 with the atmosphere. The dif-ference calculated from these two methods would imply a local sink of approximately 1.6-1.7 Pg C year À1 , or a source of 0.85 ton C ha À1 year À1 . Using our crude extrapolation of LBA values for the Amazon forests (5 million km 2 ) we estimate a range for the C flux in the region of À3.0 to 0.75 Pg C year À1 . The exercise here does not account for environmental variability across the region, but it is an important driver for present and future studies linking local process (i.e. nutrient availability, photosynthetic capacity, and so forth) to global and regional dynamic approaches. entini R, von Jouanne J, Waterloo M (2002) Biogeochemical cycling of carbon, water, energy, trace gases and aerosols in Amazonia: the LBA-EUSTACH experiments. J Geophys Res 107(D20):8066-8091.

- by Antonio Donato Nobre
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- Climate Change, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon, Photosynthesis

Artificial regeneration of forests through planting requires high quantities of quality seeds for growing vigorous seedlings. These seedlings are raised in nurseries, where germination capacity (GC) and speed are the most important germination parameters. Germination performance is enhanced by prescribing species-specific dormancy-breaking treatments to individual seedlots in bare-root and container nurseries. For most conifer species in British Columbia, the dormancy-breaking treatments and germination conditions have been worked out, but fine-tuning and optimization could improve germination capacity and speed of germination. Implications of inter- and intra-species variations in germination behaviour and seed quality and their influence on the development of unintentional directional selection of specific genotypes are discussed. The potential of molecular and genomics approaches to understand the underlying biology of seed germination-related problems is also discussed.

- by Michael Stoehr
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- Forestry, Quality Control, Temperature, Trees

Quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) is one of the most precise and widely used methods of gene expression analysis. A necessary prerequisite of exact and reliable data is the accurate choice of reference genes. We studied the expression stability of potential reference genes in common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) in order to find the optimal reference for gene expression analysis in this economically important crop. Recently sequenced buckwheat floral transcriptome was used as source of sequence information. Expression stability of eight candidate reference genes was assessed in different plant structures (leaves and inflorescences at two stages of development and fruits). These genes are the orthologs of Arabidopsis genes identified as stable in a genome-wide survey gene of expression stability and a traditionally used housekeeping gene GAPDH. Three software applications -geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper -were used to estimate expression stability and provided congruent results. The orthologs of AT4G33380 (expressed protein of unknown function, Expressed1), AT2G28390 (SAND family protein, SAND) and AT5G46630 (clathrin adapter complex subunit family protein, CACS) are revealed as the most stable. We recommend using the combination of Expressed1, SAND and CACS for the normalization of gene expression data in studies on buckwheat using qRT-PCR. These genes are listed among five the most stably expressed in Arabidopsis that emphasizes utility of the studies on model plants as a framework for other species.

- by Remo Sanges
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- Engineering, Zoology, Technology, Biotechnology

The crystal structure of Hg(I1)-plastocyanin h v been determined and refined at a resolution of 1.9 A. The crystals were prepared by soaking crystals of Cu(I1)plastocyanin from poplar leaves (Populus nigra var. italica) in a solution of a mercuric salt. Replacement of the Cu(I1) atom in plastocyanin by Hg(I1) causes only minor changes in the geometry of the metal site, and there are few significant changes elsewhere in the molecule. It is concluded that, as in the case of the native protein, the geometry of the metal site is determined by the polypeptide. The weak metal-S(methionine) bond found in Cu(I1)-plastocyanin remains weak in Hg(I1)-plastocyanin. The "flip" of a proline side chain close to the metal site from a Cy-exo conformation in Cu(I1)-plastocyanin to a C7-endo conformation in Hg(I1)-plastocyanin suggests that this region of the molecule is particularly flexible.

- by Bret Church
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- Crystallization, Biological Chemistry, Biological Sciences, Copper

Leaf area, crown projection area and growth over the last 5 years were measured to assess growth efficiency (GE) and crown efficiency (CE) of dominant (D), codominant (CD) and suppressed (SP) trees growing in height-repressed (P sites) and normally developing (M sites) lodgepole pine stands. Leaf area index (LAI), hydraulic characteristics, and needle nutrient concentrations were also measured. Volume growth of P site trees between 1994 and 1999 was 46% that of M site trees. Volume growth was closely associated with both hydraulic supply capacity (Q*) and leaf area. Height repression was not associated with lower GE, but P site trees had CE that was 24.5% lower than M site trees. Average GE of D and CD trees was 28% lower than that of SP trees, while mean CE for the D trees was 46% greater than that of CD, and 80% greater than for SP trees. Between M and P sites, canopy LAI and Q* per unit leaf area did not differ. Needle nitrogen (N) concentrations of M site trees were 7.6% greater than for P site trees. SP tree needles had the highest concentration of N and phosphorus. The nutrient advantage enjoyed by SP trees presumably allowed them to maintain higher GE for a given Q*/A l . The fastest growing trees were the large D and CD trees from M sites. As LAI did not differ between sites, height repression on P sites may be a result of total leaf area being distributed among too many small trees.

- by Douglas Reid
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- Plant Biology, Phosphorus, Nitrogen, Trees

Tropical montane forest disturbance drastically reduced macrolichen diversity. ► Species loss was most severe for the "shade-adapted lichens" because high radiation is harmful to them. ► In secondary forests lichen diversity of native forests was not regenerated. ► The protection of remnants of primary tropical forest might help to preserve a diverse community of epiphytic macrolichens.

- by Ángel Benítez
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- Biology, Ecuador, Biodiversity, Medicine

mThe fatty acid compositions of the seed oils from ten pine species have been established by capillary gasliquid chromatography of the methyl esters. With regard to either normal fatty acids or D5-olefinic acids, the general pattern of fatty acids did not differ from that of other pine seed oils reported previously. The main fatty acid was linoleic (9,12±18:2) acid (44.4±57.1%), followed by either oleic (9±18:1) acid (13.4±24.5%) or pinolenic (5,9,12±18:3) acid (1.5±25.2%). When applying multivariate analyses to the chemometric data (13 variables) of 49 pine species (ca. 40% of the living pine species), it was possible to distinguish between several sections: Pinea, Longifolia, Halepensis, Ponderosa-Banksiana, Sylvestris, and Cembra. The latter section was clearly divided into two subgroups. A few species that presented a low overall content of D5olefinic acids, and that grow in warm-temperate regions, were isolated from the bulk of other pine species. It is hypothesized that D5-olefinic acids might be related to cold-acclimation.

- by laurent Deluc
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- Plant Biology, Taxonomy, Biology, Multivariate Analysis

The aim of this study was to determine the dioecious or monoecious condition of Fitzroya cupressoides and Pilgerodendron uviferum. The study area lies west of the Nahuel Huapi National Park in northern Patagonia (Argentina), where these species form mixed stands. One hundred individuals of each species were studied over three successive years. The nature and position in the crown of their reproductive organs were recorded. Results showed that both species are dioecious. This feature has been confirmed on trees of these species growing in other sites within their natural distribution area in Argentina and Chile.

- by Javier Grosfeld
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- Argentina, Biological Sciences, Patagonia, Trees

Seasonal fluctuations in the methane fluxes in the soil-atmosphere system were determined for gray forest soils of Central Russia. Consumption of atmospheric methane was found to exceed methane emission in gray forest soils under forest and in the agrocenosis. The average annual rates of atmospheric methane consumption by the soil under forest and in the agrocenosis were 0.026 and 0.008 mg C-CH 4 /(m 2 h), respectively. The annual rate of atmospheric methane oxidation in the gray forest soils of Moscow oblast was estimated to be 0.68 kton. Seasonal fluctuations in the methane oxidation activity were due to changes in the hydrothermal conditions and in the reserves of readily decomposable organic matter and mineral nitrogen, as well as to changes in the activity of methane oxidizers.

- by Irina Kravchenko
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- Microbiology, Soil, Medical Microbiology, Russia

Des dépôts alluviaux datant du Tardiglaciaire et du début de l'Holocène ont été découverts dans la plaine du Caudeau, petit affluent de la Dordogne, à La Brunetière sur la commune de Pombonne (Dordogne) à l'occasion de travaux d'archéologie préventive. Leur analyse permet de renouveler nos connaissances sur l'évolution des cours d'eau en Aquitaine pendant cette période charnière. Ils montrent en particulier que les principales phases de métamorphose alluviale décrites dans le nord de l'Europe se sont également produites dans cette région de manière à peu près synchrone, pour autant que l'on puisse en juger d'après les dates disponibles. Deux phases majeures d'incision aux dépens de la nappe alluviale à galets pléniglaciaire sont identifiables. La première intervient pendant une phase très précoce du Bølling, soit avant 12 700 ± 45 BP, dans un environnement steppique. L'abandon rapide du chenal, associé à du soutirage karstique, permet ensuite l'installation d'un petit lac colmaté par des argiles avec quelques intercalations tourbeuses riches en macrorestes végétaux (bouleau nain, saule). L'image de la végétation donnée aussi bien par les pollens que par la faune de mollusques et d'insectes est celle d'une steppe encore très ouverte à armoise et genévriers, alors que les paléotempératures estivales indiquées par les insectes sont déjà proches de celles connues actuellement dans la région. Des paléotempératures hivernales sensiblement plus froides que les actuelles (-20 à 5°C) renvoient cependant l'image d'un climat à caractère plus continental. Les dépôts lacustres sont ensuite recouverts par une couche de sables d'inondation attribués au Dryas moyen et/ou récent. L'assèchement du chenal et le développement d'un sol hydromorphe pourrait correspondre respectivement soit à l'Allerød, soit au tout début de l'Holocène. La seconde phase d'incision est attribuée au Préboréal et tronque la séquence tardiglaciaire ; elle est associée à un style alluvial à chenaux anastomosés. L'abandon de la majorité des chenaux pendant le Boréal marque la réduction du lit à un chenal unique sinueux, comparable à celui qui caractérise le Caudeau actuel. Une industrie lithique de type Magdalénien supérieur a également été découverte sur la berge du chenal tardiglaciaire. L'industrie recueillie est exclusivement taillée dans le silex local maestrichtien. Elle comprend environ 200 éclats et 800 petits restes de taille, pour seulement 15 lames de plein débitage et 6 outils (sans aucun microlithe). L'utilisation exclusive d'un percuteur minéral tendre, la morphologie du nucléus laminaire, la rectitude des petites lames, les 2 lames appointées sont autant de caractères qui évoquent le stade ultime du Magdalénien supérieur, tel qu'il est connu plus en amont le long de la Dordogne sur les sites de la Gare de Couze et du Moulin du Roc.

- by Luc Detrain
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- Pleistocene, Quaternary, Peat, Holocene

We investigated forest responses to global warming by observing: (1) planted Pinus halepensis forests, (2) an aridity gradient-with annual precipitation (P) ranging from ~300 to ~700 mm, and (3) periods of wet and dry climate that included the driest period during at least the last 110 years. We examined: (1) how the length of climatic integration periods to which trees are most responsive varies in space and time, (2) the extent to which competition modulates growth decline during drought (2011) and subsequent recovery (2012) years. The temporal scale of rainfall that was most influential on growth shortened in progressing southward, and in the drier than in the wetter period. Long-term underground water storage, as reflected in the relationship of growth to multiple-year rainfall, remained significant up to the point where P ≈ 500 mm. Under drier conditions (P < 500 mm) in both space and time, influential rainfall scales shortened, probably reflecting a diminishing role of wate...

- by Avi Perevolotsky
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- Soil, Water, Ecology, Climate

Research on the benefits of local ecological knowledge for conservation lacks empirical data on the pathways through which local knowledge might affect natural resources management. We test whether ethnobotanical skills, a proxy for local ecological knowledge, are associated to the clearance of forest through their interaction with agricultural labor. We collected information from men in a society of gatherers-horticulturalist, the Tsimane' (Bolivia). Data included a baseline survey, a survey of ethnobotanical skills (n = 190 men), and two surveys on agricultural labor inputs (n = 466 plots). We find a direct effect of ethnobotanical skills in lowering the extent of forest cleared in fallow but not in old-growth forest. We also find that the interaction between ethnobotanical skills and labor invested in shifting cultivation has opposite effects depending on whether the clearing is done in oldgrowth or fallow forest. We explain the finding in the context of Tsimane' increasing integration to the market economy.

- by Unai Pascual
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- Economics, Technology, Ethnobotany, Production

The continuous high demand of water resources for agricultural uses in Jordan is leading to a water crisis. A possible partial solution may be to import food which requires large amounts of water to grow instead of cultivating high water consuming crops. Crops such as banana and citrus cause a huge virtual water loss, which can be reduced by cultivating other less water-demanding crops. This paper focuses on analyzing the economic value of cultivating tree fruit from a virtual water perspective. The virtual water calculations in this study depend on the average rainfall, water quota, and the crops' water requirements (CWR). The gross profit to the water use ratio showed that banana has the lowest value 0.085 JD/m 3 , while lemon has the highest value 1.65 JD/m 3 . The calculations show that the average embedded water in fruits varies from about 470 m 3 /ton for grapes to about 2,500 m 3 /ton for dates. Banana and citrus plantations consume about 21 and 71 million cubic meters (MCM) annually, respectively, which represent about 85% of the total water consumption in fruit tree plantation. The virtual water flow estimation embedded in fruits shows that Jordan imports about 77 MCM per year. However it exports about 29 MCM per year. The results were analyzed from an integrated water resources management (IWRM) perspective. The analysis shows that a way to recover some of the water costs involved in, e.g., banana production would be

- by Hartmut Gaese and +1
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- Water, Water resources, Consumption, Water Resources Management

Studies in Europe have reported negative effects of acid deposition on forest birds, and research in North America has identified links between forest bird abundance and rates of acid deposition. We examined the bird community in an acidified forest in central Pennsylvania (USA) and evaluated the effects of terrestrial lime application on birds. We used a before-after control-impact (BACI) study design, with one year of observation before and three years after lime application (2004, 2005, and 2006). Between the 2003 and 2004 field seasons, 4500 kg/ha of dolomitic lime were applied to two of four 100-ha watersheds. Each year, we monitored bird abundance and Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapilla) eggshell thickness and territory size. Soil and snail abundance data were also collected. The bird community and territory size results indicated that the study area may be providing low-quality habitat for forest birds, perhaps as a result of acid deposition. We found lower forest bird abundances than have been found in less acidified areas of Pennsylvania, and larger Ovenbird territory sizes than have been found in other studies. We found a significant positive relationship between soil calcium and bird abundance, indicating that soil calcium may affect bird abundance. Liming increased soil calcium and pH and led to increased snail and bird abundances. After liming, bird abundance was positively related to snail abundance. No significant changes occurred in Ovenbird territory size or eggshell thickness. Our results suggest that acid deposition could be responsible for reduced bird abundance, and that liming is a potential mitigation technique.

- by Margaret Brittingham
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- Forestry, Soil, Calcium, Population Dynamics

Un arboretum est un jardin botanique spécialisé qui présente une collection d'arbres et arbustes, indigènes ou exotiques, existants ou plantés pour l'occasion, généralement regroupés par thème. La parti-cularité de l'Arboretum de Momignies réside dans son aménagement linéaire, le long du RAVeL 156 Momignies-Chimay. Les zones aménagées se répartissent sur une longueur de 6 km, en quatre sites théma-tiques: un espace est dédicacé aux feuillus, un autre aux fruitiers, un aux résineux et enfin une zone regroupe les espèces locales et quelques sujets particuliers.

Linear infrastructure such as roads, highways, power lines and gas lines are omnipresent features of human activity and are rapidly expanding in the tropics. Tropical species are especially vulnerable to such infrastructure because they include many ecological specialists that avoid even narrow (<30-m wide) clearings and forest edges, as well as other species that are susceptible to road kill, predation or hunting by humans near roads. In addition, roads have a major role in opening up forested tropical regions to destructive colonization and exploitation. Here, we synthesize existing research on the impacts of roads and other linear clearings on tropical rainforests, and assert that such impacts are often qualitatively and quantitatively different in tropical forests than in other ecosystems. We also highlight practical measures to reduce the negative impacts of roads and other linear infrastructure on tropical species.

- by susan laurance
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- Forestry, Ecology, Transportation, Biological Sciences

Invasive rats (Rattus rattus, R. norvegicus, R. exulans) have large impacts on island habitats through both direct and indirect effects on plants. Rats affect vegetation by extirpating burrowing seabirds through consumption of eggs, chicks, and adults. These seabirds serve as ecosystem engineers, affecting plant communities by burying and trampling seeds and seedlings, and by altering microclimate. Rats also directly affect plant communities by consuming seeds and seedlings. We studied the direct and indirect impacts of rats on the seedlings of woody plants on 21 islands in northern New Zealand. We compared seedling densities and richness on islands which differed in status with respect to rats: nine islands where rats never invaded, seven islands where rats were present at the time of our study, and five islands where rats were either eradicated or where populations were likely to be small as a result of repeated eradications and re-invasions. In addition, we compared plots from a subset of the 21 islands with different burrow densities to examine the effects of burrowing seabirds on plants while controlling for other factors that differ between islands. We categorized plant communities by species composition and seedling density in a cluster analysis. We found that burrow densities explained more variation in seedling communities than rat status. In areas with high seabird burrow density seedling densities were low, especially for the smallest seedlings. Species richness and diversity of seedlings, but not seedling density, were most influenced by changes in microclimate induced by seabirds. Islands where rats had been eradicated or that had low rat populations had the lowest diversity and richness of seedlings (and adults), but the highest seedling density. Seedling communities on these islands were dominated by Pseudopanax lessonii and Coprosma macrocarpa. This indicates lasting effects of rats that may prevent islands from returning to pre-invasion states.

- by Peter Bellingham
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- Geography, Soil, Ecology, Phosphorus

The cytolytic seed protein enterolobin from seeds ofEnterolobium contortisiliquumwas purified by using FPLC on a Mono Q column giving a single peak in capillary electrophoresis. The complete amino acid sequence of the plant cytolysin was determined by an automated method, yielding a molecular mass of 54,806 Da. Databank searches and sequence alignment demonstrated a high degree of sequence identity and

A Pr ufer code of a labeled free tree with n nodes is a sequence of length n − 2 constructed by the following sequential process: for i ranging from 1 to n − 2 insert the label of the neighbor of the smallest remaining leaf into the ith position of the sequence, and then delete the leaf. Pr ufer codes provide an alternative to the usual representation of trees. We present an optimal O(log n) time, n=log n processor EREW-PRAM algorithm for determining the Pr ufer code of an n-node labeled chain and an O(log n) time, n processor EREW-PRAM algorithm for constructing the Pr ufer code of an n-node labeled free tree. This resolves an open question posed by Wang et al.

- by Rossella Petreschi
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- Applied Mathematics, Parallel Algorithms, Distributed System, Trees

Climate, climate change and tourism all interact. Part of the public discussion about climate change focusses on the tourism sector, with direct and indirect impacts being of equally high relevance. Climate and tourism are closely linked. Thus, climate is a very decisive factor in choices both of destination and of type of journey (active holidays, wellness, and city tours) in the tourism sector. However, whether choices about destinations or types of trip will alter with climate change is difficult to predict. Future climates can be simulated and projected, and the tendencies of climate parameters can be estimated using global and regional climate models. In this paper, the focus is on climate change in the mountainous regions of southwest Germanythe Black Forest. The Black Forest is one of the low mountain ranges where both winter and summer tourism are vulnerable to climate change due to its southern location; the strongest climatic changes are expected in areas covering the south and southwest of Germany. Moreover, as the choice of destination is highly dependent on good weather, a climatic assessment for tourism is essential. Thus, the aim of this study was to estimate climatic changes in mountainous regions during summer, especially for tourism and recreation. The assessment method was based on human-biometeorology as well as tourism-climatologic approaches. Regional climate simulations based on the regional climate model REMO were used for tourism-related climatic analyses. Emission scenarios A1B and B1 were considered for the time period 2021 to 2050, compared to the 30-year base period of 1971-2000, particularly for the warm period of the year, defined here as the months of March-November. In this study, we quantified the frequency, but not the means, of climate parameters. The study results show that global and regional warming is reflected in an increase in annual mean air temperature, especially in autumn. Changes in the spring show a slight negative trend, which is in line with the trend of a decrease in physiologically equivalent temperature as well as in thermal comfort conditions. Due to the rising air temperature, heat stress as well as sultry conditions are projected to become more frequent, affecting human health and recreation, especially at lower lying altitudes. The tops of the mountains and higher elevated areas still have the advantage of offering comfortable climatic conditions.

- by Christina Endler
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- Climate, Biometeorology, Tourism and climate change, Germany

Using historic data sets, we quantified the degree to which global change over 120 years disrupted plant-pollinator interactions in a temperate forest understory community in Illinois, USA. We found degradation of interaction network structure and function and extirpation of 50% of bee species. Network changes can be attributed to shifts in forb and bee phenologies resulting in temporal mismatches, nonrandom species extinctions, and loss of spatial co-occurrences between extant species in modified landscapes. Quantity and quality of pollination services have declined through time. The historic network showed flexibility in response to disturbance; however, our data suggest that networks will be less resilient to future changes.

- by John Marlin
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- Science, Pollination, Multidisciplinary, Bees

Twenty-one strains of a novel ascomycetous yeast species were isolated from soil collected in three kinds of natural forest, namely a dry dipterocarp forest, a mixed deciduous forest and a pine forest, in Nam Nao National Park, Phetchabun province, Thailand. The strains formed asci containing one to four ovoid to reniform ascospores, assimilated glucose, galactose and glycerol, fermented glucose and galactose vigorously and contained ubiquinone Q-6, indicating that they belonged to the genus Tetrapisispora. A comparative analysis of the small subunit rDNA (SSU rDNA) and the D1/D2 domain of the large subunit rDNA (LSU rDNA) of all available sequences for ascomycetous yeasts confirmed that the strains were phylogenetically related to the genus Tetrapisispora. All strains had identical nucleotide sequences in the D1/D2 domain of the LSU rDNA and differed from the nearest species, Tetrapisispora arboricola IFO 10925(T), by 6.4% nucleotide substitutions. The strains differed from Tetrapisispora arboricola by the ability to assimilate D-gluconic acid, the inability to grow on 50% glucose medium, the nuclear DNA base composition and deliquescent asci. The strains were differentiated from the other four species of Tetrapisispora on the basis of trehalose assimilation, the ability to grow on 50% glucose or 10% NaCl plus 5% glucose, vitamin requirement, the nuclear DNA base composition and the type of ascus. Based on the characteristics mentioned above, the strains are recognized as a single novel species of the genus Tetrapisispora and the name Tetrapisispora namnaonensis sp. nov. is proposed. The type strain is TN1-01(T) (=TISTR 5828(T)=JCM 12664(T)=CBS 10093(T)).

- by Tatsuji Seki and +1
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- Evolutionary Biology, Microbiology, Medical Microbiology, Thailand

Respiration of stems and branches of trees (R S ) has typically been estimated by measuring radial CO 2 efflux from woody tissue (E A ) and rates of efflux are often scaled temporally using a temperature relationship (Q 10 ). High concentrations of CO 2 in xylem sap ([CO Ã 2 ]) have been shown to affect E A , and the transport of CO 2 in the xylem stream has been suggested as a mechanism to explain field observations of temperature-independent fluctuations in E A . Sap velocity and temperature were manipulated in detached branch segments of sycamore (Platanus occidentalis L.) under controlled conditions to quantify these effects. Within individual branches of similar size, E A and [CO Ã 2 ] were greater at low sap velocity, while the amount of respired CO 2 transported in sap (transport flux, F T ) was greater at high sap velocity. E A was linearly correlated with [CO Ã 2 ]. In branches of three diameter classes (1, 2, and 3 cm), volume-based E A , F T , and R S did not differ, but surfacearea based CO 2 fluxes increased with diameter class. Regardless of diameter, E A accounted for only 30% of respired CO 2 at high sap velocity, while at low sap velocity, E A accounted for 71% of respired CO 2 . E A , F T , and R S measured at 5, 20, and 35°C at the same sap velocity showed a typical exponential response to temperature. However, at the lowest temperature, E A accounted for only 18% of the CO 2 released from respiring cells compared with 44% at the highest temperature, perhaps due to the effect of temperature on the solubility of CO 2 in water. These results directly demonstrate the transport of respired CO 2 in the xylem stream and may help to explain inconsistencies in stem and branch respiration measurements made in situ.

- by Sofia Cerasoli
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- Carbon Dioxide, Plant Biology, Experimental Botany, Xylem

The time has come to change our thinking and to open our front gardens hidden behind high walls to the street. Together we can return to our typical rural village doorways which have almost disappeared over the time. Let's show our neighbours that we are open to them and offer our front garden with a bench as an attractive semi-public space for meetings and dialogs. If we convert our front garden from a private into a semi-public space, we can help to unify the streetscape. The street will become an attractive and safe public space. Let’s get rid of high fences as a significant barrier, or at least use some lower wooden ones. Let’s move the fence onto the building line of the house as it was in the time of convenient and nice village streets. The rural residential street has the potential to become an attractive and safe public space in an embrace of the greenery, let’s restore the doorways and the affable character of our village streets. The residents will once again become the "masters of the street" instead of currently dominating cars. Front gardens, green strips and islands will thanks to landscape architectural improvements become an adornment of the whole streetscape.

- by Attila Tóth
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- Rural Sociology, Architecture, Landscape Architecture, Rural Development

EnArbolar: BIGTREES4LIFE, is a communication project of Félix Rodríguez de la Fuente Foundation cofinanced by the Provincial Council of Valencia / IMELSA and the LIFE + program, dedicated to the preservation of large trees and mature forests of the Natura 2000 network in Spain and their areas of influence. The dissemination
of the natural, scenic, tourist and educational importance of the yews, whether old relict formations or isolated specimens, is the best tool to ensure their effective protection.

- by César-Javier Palacios Palomar
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- Botany, Protected areas, Trees