Radical SAM enzymes (original) (raw)

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Protein family

Radical SAM enzymes
Identifiers
Symbol Radical SAM
Pfam PF04055
InterPro IPR007197
SCOP2 102114 / SCOPe / SUPFAM
Available protein structures:Pfam structures / ECOD PDBRCSB PDB; PDBe; PDBjPDBsumstructure summary

Radical SAM enzymes belong to a superfamily of enzymes that use an iron-sulfur cluster (4Fe-4S) to reductively cleave _S_-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAM) to generate a radical, usually a 5′-deoxyadenosyl radical (5'-dAdo), as a critical intermediate.[1][2] These enzymes utilize this radical intermediate[3] to perform diverse transformations, often to functionalize unactivated C-H bonds. Radical SAM enzymes are involved in cofactor biosynthesis, enzyme activation, peptide modification, post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications, metalloprotein cluster formation, tRNA modification, lipid metabolism, biosynthesis of antibiotics and natural products etc. The vast majority of known radical SAM enzymes belong to the radical SAM superfamily,[4][5] and have a cysteine-rich motif that matches or resembles CxxxCxxC. Radical SAM enzymes comprise the largest superfamily of metal-containing enzymes.[6]

History and mechanism

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As of 2001, 645 unique radical SAM enzymes have been identified from 126 species in all three domains of life.[4] According to the EFI and SFLD databases, more than 220,000 radical SAM enzymes are predicted to be involved in 85 types of biochemical transformations.[7]

The mechanism for these reactions entail transfer of a methyl or adenosyl group from sulfur to iron. The resulting organoiron complex subsequently releases the organic radical. The latter step is reminiscent of the behavior of adenosyl and methyl cobalamins.[8]

All enzymes including radical SAM enzymes follow an easy guideline for systematic naming. Systematic naming of enzymes allows a uniform naming process that is recognized by all scientists to understand corresponding function. The first word of the enzyme name often shows the substrate of the enzyme. The position of the reaction on the substrate will also be in the beginning portion of the name. Lastly, the class of the enzyme will be described in the other half of the name which will end in suffix -ase. The class of an enzyme will describe what the enzyme is doing or changing on the substrate. For example, a ligase combines two molecules to form a new bond.[9]

Superimposition of three radical SAM core domains. Side views of radical SAM enzymes BioB (PDB: 1R30), MoaA (PDB: 1TV8) and phTYW1 (PDB: 2YX0) are shown front and back. This core fold consists of six β/α motifs arranged in a manner that is similar to TIM barrel and is responsible for radical generation.[10] β-sheets are colored yellow and α-helices are shown in cyan.

Reaction classification

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Representative enzymes will be mentioned for each class. Radical SAM enzymes and their mechanisms known before 2008 are summarized by Frey et al.[5] Since 2015, additional review articles on radical SAM enzymes are available, including:

  1. Advances in Radical SAM Enzymology: New Structures and Mechanisms:[11]
  2. Radical S-Adenosylmethionine Enzymes:[1]
  3. Radical S-Adenosylmethionine (SAM) Enzymes in Cofactor Biosynthesis: A Treasure Trove of Complex Organic Radical Rearrangement Reactions:[12]
  4. Molecular architectures and functions of radical enzymes and their (re)activating proteins:[13]
  5. Radical SAM enzymes in RiPP biosynthesis.[14]
  6. Radical SAM enzymes with a vitamin B12 (cobalamin)-binding domain.[15]

Radical SAM methylases/methyltransferases are one of the largest yet diverse subgroups and are capable of methylating a broad range of unreactive carbon and phosphorus centers. These enzymes are divided into three classes (Class A, B and C) with representative methylation mechanisms. The shared characteristic is the usage of SAM, split into two distinct roles: one as a source of a methyl group donor, and the second as a source of 5'-dAdo radical.[16][17] Another class has been proposed (class D) but proved to be wrongly assigned.[18]

Structure of a B12-dependent radical SAM enzyme (PDB:7QBS)

Methylthiolation of tRNAs

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Methylthiotransferases belong to a subset of radical SAM enzymes that contain two [4Fe-4S]+ clusters and one radical SAM domain. Methylthiotransferases play a major role in catalyzing methylthiolation on tRNA nucleotides or anticodons through a redox mechanism. Thiolation modification is believed to maintain translational efficiency and fidelity.[11][26][27][28]

MiaB and RimO are both well-characterized and bacterial prototypes for tRNA-modifying methylthiotransferases

eMtaB is the designated methylthiotransferase in eukaryotic and archaeal cells. eMtaB catalyzes the methylthiolation of tRNA at position 37 on N6-threonylcarbamoyladenosine.[34] A bacterial homologue of eMtaB, YqeV has been reported and suggested to function similarly to MiaB and RimO.[34]

Sulfur insertion into unreactive C-H bonds

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Sulfurtransferases are a small subset of radical SAM enzymes. Two well-known examples are BioB and LipA which are independently responsible for biotin synthesis and lipoic acid metabolism, respectively.[1]

The active site of Mo nitrogenase is the M-cluster, a metal-sulfur cluster containing a carbide at its core. Within the biosynthesis of M-cluster, radical SAM enzyme NifB has been recognized to catalyze a carbon insertion reaction, leading to formation of a Mo/homocitrate-free precursor of M-cluster.[35]

Anaerobic oxidative decarboxylation

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Protein post-translational modification

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Protein radical formation

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Glycyl radical enzyme activating enzymes (GRE-AEs) are radical SAM subset that can house a stable and catalytically essential glycyl radical in their active state. The underlying chemistry is considered to be the simplest in the radical SAM superfamily with H-atom abstraction by the 5'-dAdo radical being the product of the reaction.[1] A few examples include:

Peptide modifications

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Radical SAM enzymes that can catalyze sulfur-to-alpha carbon thioether cross-linked peptides (sactipeptides) generate a class of peptide with antibacterial properties.[44][45] These peptides belong to the emerging class of ribosomally synthesized and post-translationally modified peptides (RiPPs).[7]

Another subset of peptide-modifying radical SAM enzymes is SPASM/Twitch domain-carrying enzymes. SPASM/Twitch enzymes carry a functionalized C-terminal extension for the binding of two [4Fe-4S] clusters, especially in post-translational modifications of peptides.[46][47][48][7]

The following examples are representative enzymes that can catalyze peptide modifications to generate specific natural products or cofactors.

  1. TsrM in thiostrepton biosynthesis[49][50]
  2. PoyD[51] and PoyC[52] in polytheonamide biosynthesis
  3. TbtI in thiomuracin biosynthesis[23]
  4. NosN in nosiheptide biosynthesis[53]
  5. EpeE (previously called YydG) in epipeptide biosynthesis[54][55][56]
  6. MoaA in molybdopterin biosynthesis[53][12]
  7. PqqE in pyrroloquinoline quinone biosynthesis[53]
  8. TunB in tunicamycin biosynthesis[53]
  9. OxsB in oxetanocin biosynthesis[53]
  10. BchE in anaerobic bacteriochlorophyll biosynthesis[53]
  11. F0 synthases in F420 cofactor biosynthesis[57][58]
  12. MqnE and MqnC in menaquinone biosynthesis[53][12]
  13. QhpD in post-translational processing of quinohemoprotein amine dehydrogenase[59]
  14. RumMC2 in ruminococcin C biosynthesis[44][60]

Radical SAM epimerases are responsible for the regioselective introduction of D-amino acids into RiPPs.[55] Two well-known enzymes have been thoroughly described in RiPP biosynthetic pathways.[7] Radical SAM peptide epimerases use a critical cysteine residue to provide back an H-atom to the epimerized residue in addition to unique features for RiPP interaction.[56]

Two well-known enzymes have been thoroughly described in RiPP biosynthetic pathways.[7]

Complex carbon skeleton rearrangements

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Another subset of radical SAM superfamily has been shown to catalyze carbon skeleton rearrangements especially in the areas of DNA repair and cofactor biosynthesis.

Clinical considerations

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Therapeutic applications

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Below are a few examples of radical SAM enzymes have been shown to be promising targets for antibiotic and antiviral development.[73][74]

Examples of radical SAM enzymes found within the radical SAM superfamily include:

In addition, several non-canonical radical SAM enzymes have been described. These cannot be recognized by the Pfam hidden Markov model PF04055, but still use three Cys residues as ligands to a 4Fe4S cluster and produce a radical from S-adenosylmethionine. These include

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